Biology and Ecology
Boyden, S. V. (1987). Western civilization in biological perspective: patterns in biohistory. Oxford [Oxfordshire], New York, Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press.
Callicott, J. B. (1987). Companion to A Sand County Almanac: Interpretive & Critical Essays. Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin Press.
Cavalieri, P. and P. Singer, Eds. (1993). The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity. New York, St. Martins Press.
This collection of articles presents a wealth of information on great apes, and why we as humans should be considered a part of this group which also includes gorillas, chimpanzees and orang-utans. Articles include texts describing long term research projects on great apes in the wild, on teaching them sign language, on their mental capacities, on the physical similarities between all members of the great ape category, on the definition of personhood, the current status and treatment of great apes, and what these topics say about the moral and legal status of great apes. This is an interesting book full of amazing facts about great apes that is also quite provocative ethically.
D'Silva, E. H., S. Appanah, et al. (1993). Forestry management for sustainable development. Washington, D.C., World Bank.
Dasmann, R. F. (1985). "Achieving the sustainable use of species and ecosystems." Landscape Planning 12: 211-219.
Davis, T. (2000). Sustaining the forest, the people, and the spirit. Albany, NY, State University of New York Press.
Donald, A. D. (1994). "Parasites, animal production and sustainable development." Veterinary Parasitology 54(1-3): 27-47.
Elliot, R. (1997). Faking nature: the ethics of environmental restoration. London; New York, Routledge.
[http://firstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/DCARead?standardNoType=1&standardNo=0415111404:srcdbname=worldcat:fromExternal=true&sessionid=0.]
Gardiner, R. (2002). Oceans and seas harnessing the marine environment for sustainable development. S.l., s.n.
[http://www.earthsummit2002.org/es/issues/oceans/oceans.PDF.]
Hecht, S. B. and A. Cockburn (1989). The fate of the forest: developers, destroyers and defenders of the Amazon. London; New York, NY, Verso.
Kellert, S. R. and E. O. Wilson (1993). The Biophilia hypothesis. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Leopold, A. (2001). A sand county almanac: with essays on conservation. New York, Oxford University Press.
Leopold, A., S. Flader, et al. (1991). The river of the mother of God and other essays. Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin Press.
Lesser, W. (1998). Sustainable use of genetic resources under the Convention on Biological Diversity: exploring access and benefit sharing issues / W. Lesser. New York, CAB International.
Maser, C. (1990). The redesigned forest. Toronto, Canada, Stoddart.
Maser, C. (1997). Sustainable forestry: philosophy, science, and economics. Boca Raton, Fla., St. Lucie Press.
[http://firstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/DECRead?standardNoType=1&standardNo=1884015166&sessionid=0&srcdbname=worldcat&key=569a407df8c0e66c8b720da22fca624c364bcae072e3b6c79ba3523313ceb703&ectype=MOREINFO.]
Maser, C. and W. Smith (2000). Forest certification in sustainable development: healing the landscape. Boca Raton, Lewis Publishers.
[http://firstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/DECRead?standardNoType=1&standardNo=156670510X&sessionid=0&srcdbname=worldcat&key=7d3da3209543965511f5f2fba88b76fb180a33997e1734e3edbf2b614cbcaf81&ectype=TOC.]
Melchias, G. (2001). Biodiversity and conservation. Enfield, N.H., Science.
Parikh, J. and H. Datye, Eds. (2003). Sustainable management of wetlands: biodiversity and beyond. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications.
Perrings, C. and Biodiversity Programme. (1994). Biodiversity conservation: problems and policies. Dordrecht; Boston, Kluwer Academic.
Reid, W. V. (1993). "Bioprospecting: a force for sustainable development." Environmental Science & Technology 27(9): 1730-1732.
Reij, C., I. Scoones, et al. (1996). Sustaining the soil: indigenous soil and water conservation in Africa. London, Earthscan Publications.
Sandlund, O. T., K. Hindar, et al. (1992). Conservation of biodiversity for sustainable development. Oslo, Norway, Scandinavian University Press.
Smith, R. L. (1972). The ecology of man: an ecosystem approach. New York, Harper & Row.
Case Studies
Akiner, S., S. Tideman, et al., Eds. (1998). Sustainable development in Central Asia. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Alison, K., P. Newman, et al. (1998). A sustainability plan for Philadelphia: an outline of a Local Agenda 21 Plan. Philadelphia, PA, Dept. of City and Regional Planning.
Asenso-Okyere, W. K., G. Benneh, et al., Eds. (1997). Sustainable food security in West Africa. Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Badenkov, Y. "Sustainable development of the mountain regions of the USSR: the realities, the role of science, and research orientations." Mountain Research and Development 10(2): 129-139.
Baiping, Z. (1995). "Geoecology and sustainable development in the Kunlun Mountains, China." Mountain Research and Development 15(3): 283-292.
Barnhoorn, F. (1994). Sustainable development in Botswana: an analysis of resource management in three communal development areas. Utrecht, Royal Dutch Geographical Society: Faculty of Geographical Sciences Utrecht University.
Barrett, C. B. and P. Arcese (1995). "Are integrated conservation-development projects (ICDPS) sustainable? On the conservation of large mammals in Sub-Saharan Africa." World Development 23(7): 1073-1084.
Barton, H. (1996). "The Isle of Harris Superquarry: Concepts of the Environment and Sustainability." Environ metal Values 5(2): 97-122.
This article is an excellent case study analyzing the different perspectives on a proposed quarry on a small island in Scotland. Barton finds that different interpretations of the environment, shaped by cultural and historical contexts of individuals greatly influence opinions on the quarry. Barton identifies different perspectives of space, time, and what should be sustained as the critical differences among the diverse stakeholders. He proposes that a reform of the planning process is needed to give more power to the people of these islands and the freedom to develop and implement development agendas. However, he also acknowledges that local people often are not aware of, or concerned about global effects of local projects, and so he suggests that there should be an increased level in local public participation in the planning process. Finally, he advocates for the increase in resources available to the region so they will not have to rely on the outside world for jobs or decision making. Again, this article is an excellent example of the diverse positions various groups can have on one issue, with an insightful analysis as to causes of these differences.
Basiago, A. D. (1995). "Sustainable development in Indonesia: a case study of an indigenous regime of environmental law and policy." International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 2(3): 199-211.
Brown, C. J., J. Tarr, et al. (2002). Sustainable development in Namibia: notes on environmental issues contributing toward sustainable development in Namibia. Windhoek, Namibia, Ministry of Environment and Tourism: United Nations Development Programme: Namibia Nature Foundation.
Bryantt, R., J. Rigg, et al. (1993). "Forest transformations and political ecology in Southeast Asia." Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3(4-6): 101-111.
Buckwell, A. E. (1993). An agricultural strategy for Bulgaria: toward sustainable development through increased efficiency. S.l., s.n.
Byers, E. and M. Sainju (1994). "Mountain ecosystems and women: opportunities for sustainable development and conservation." Mountain Research and Development 14(3): 213-228.
Calthorpe, P. and S. Poticha (1993). The next American metropolis: ecology, community, and the American dream. New York, Princeton Architectural Press.
Cheng, X., C. Han, et al. (1992). "Sustainable agricultural development in China." World Development 20(general): 1127-1144.
Chircop, A. (1992). "The Mediterranean sea and the quest for sustainable development." Ocean Development and International Law 23(1): 17-30.
Cole, K., Ed. (1994). Sustainable development for a democratic South Africa. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Columbia University. Southern Asia Institute. (1992). Working toward sustainable development: conference report. New York, N.Y., Published by the Southern Asia Institute School of International and Public Affairs Columbia University.
Commission, B. (1995). "Bellagio statement on tobacco and sustainable development." Canadian Medical Association Journal 153(general): 1109-10.
Costanza, R., S. C. Farber, et al. (1989). "Valuation and Management of Wetland Ecosystems." Ecological Economics 1: 335-361.
Curtis, A. and T. deLacy (1998). "Landcare, Stewardship and Sustainable Agriculture in Australia." Environmental Values 7(1): 39-78.
Darkoh, M. and A. Rwomire, Eds. (2003). Human impact on environment and sustainable development in Africa. Burlington, VT, Ashgate.
Deere, C. L. and D. C. Esty (2002). Greening the Americas: NAFTA's lessons for hemispheric trade. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
Esty, D. C. and A. Dua (1997). Sustaining the Asia Pacific miracle: environmental protection and economic integration. Washington, D.C, Institute for International Economics.
Ferraz, B. and B. Munslow, Eds. (2000). Sustainable development in Mozambique. Trenton, NJ, Africa World Press.
Fisher, W. F. (1997). Toward sustainable development? struggling over India's Narmada River. Jaipur, Rawat Publications.
Folke, C. (1988). "Energy Economy of Salmon Aquaculture in the Baltic Sea." Environmental Management 12(4): 525-537.
Foweraker, J. (1982). "Accumulation and authoritarianism on the pioneer frontier of Brazil." Journal of Pesant Studies 10(1): 95-117.
Furedy, C. (1992). "Garbage: exploring non-conventional options in Asian cities." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 42-60.
Garavaglia, J. C. (1992). "Human beings and the environment in America: on 'determinism' and 'possibilism'." International Social Science Journal 34: 569-577.
Giaoutzi, M. and P. Nijkamp (1993). Decision support models for regional sustainable development: an application of geographic information systems and evaluation models to the Greek Sporades Islands. Aldershot, Hants, England; Brookfield, Vt., USA, Avebury.
Goldrich, D. and D. V. Carruthers (1992). "Sustainable development in Mexico? The international politics of crisis or opportunity." Latin American Perspectives 72(19(1)): 97-122.
Good, R. (1995). "Ecologically sustainable development in the Australian Alps." Mountain Research and Development 15(3): 251-258.
Grena Kliass, R. (1990). "Planning and conservation: green areas and the environmental quality of the city of Såo Paulo." Third World Planning Review 12(4): 351-360.
Gwynne, R. (1993). "Outward orientation and marginal environments: the question of sustainable development in the Norte Chico, Chile." Mountain Research and Development 13(3): 281-293.
Heroepoetri, A. (1994). Environmental impact assessment as a tool toward sustainable development in Indonesia (Indonesian and Canadian legal perspectives). Ottawa, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada.
Ho, S. P. S. and Y. Y. Kueh (2000). Sustainable economic development in South China. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Ikejiofor, U. (1999). "The God that failed: A critique of public housing in Nigeria 1975-1995." Habitat International 23(2): 177-88.
Indonesia. Department Luar Negeri. (1993). Economic development and sustainable development: forestry management in Indonesia: issues and perspectives. Jakarta, Department of Foreign Affairs Republic of Indonesia.
Joochul, K. (1991). "Urban redevelopment of greenbelt-area villages: a case study of Seoul, Korea." Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 23(2): 20-29.
Macrae, R. J., J. Henning, et al. (1993). "Strategies to overcome barriers to the development of sustainable agriculture in Canada: the role of agribuisness." Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 6(1): 21-51.
Manitoba. Manitoba Environment. and International Institute for Sustainable Development. (1977). Moving toward sustainable development reporting.: State of the environment report for Manitoba 1997. Winnipeg, Manitoba Environment.
Minnesota Planning (Agency), Minnesota Environmental Quality Board., et al. (1998). Taking root: state agency efforts toward sustainable development in Minnesota. St. Paul, MN, Environmental Quality Board: MN Planning.
Mumme, S. P. (1992). "System maintenance and environmental reform in Mexico: Salinas's preemptive strategy." Latin American Perspectives 72(19): 1.
New Brunswick. Premier's Round Table on Environment and Economy. (2000). Toward sustainable development in New Brunswick: a plan for action: progress and recommendations. Fredericton, N.B., The Round Table.
Nhantumbo, I., S. Norfolk, et al. (2003). Community based natural resources management in Mozambique: a theoretical or practical strategy for local sustainable development? the case study of Derre Forest Reserve. Brighton, Sustainable livelihoods in Southern Africa Programme, Environment Group, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.
Nwoke, B. E., F. O. Nduka, et al. (1993). "Sustainable urban development and human health: septic tank as a major breeding habitat of mosquito vectors of human diseases in south-eastern Nigeria." Applied Parasitology 34(1): 1-10.
Nygren, A. (1998). "Environment as Discourse: Searching for Sustainable Development in Costa Rica." Environmental Values 7(2): 201-222.
This article outlines four positions related to the environment and sustainable development in Costa Rica. Environmentalists for nature focus on ecological goals and environmental care which they propose to achieve using intervening authority. The environmentalists for profit focus on economic goals and plan to value nature economically through globalization. Alternative environmentalists focus on spiritual motives and want to liberate themselves from western influences through radical populism. Environmentalism for the people focuses on humanitarian goals that could be reached through idealist grassroots organizations.
Olson, B. (1994). Toward sustainable development by smallholders of rubber in Indonesia: x, 119 leaves.
Pan American Sanitary Bureau., United Nations. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean., et al. (1998). Health, social equity and changing production patterns in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC, Pan American Sanitary Bureau; United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean.
Perrings, C. (1996). Sustainable development and poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of Botswana. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Rabinovitch, J. (1992). "Curitiba: towards sustainable urban development." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 62-73.
Ramakrishnan, P. S. (1992). Shifting agriculture and sustainable development: an interdisciplinary study from north-eastern India. Paris: UNESCO; Park Ridge, N.J., USA: Parthenon Pub. Group.
Redclift, M. R. and C. Sage (1994). Strategies for sustainable development: local agendas for the Southern Hemisphere. Chichester; New York, J. Wiley & Sons.
Chapter two, "Sustainable Development, Economics, and the Environment," is an incredibly helpful resource. This chapter suggests that the various ways that the terms "sustainability" and "sustainable development" have been used have helped promote the use of these terms. In particular, the normative/active and positive/passive juxtapositions in meanings of sustainability allow these terms to bridge the gap between the scientific concept of sustainability and the moral force necessary for social action and change. This chapter also assesses modernity's role in setting the stage for concepts of sustainability through the ideas of progress, and modernity's ability to legitimate its own practices. Thus, the authors claim that sustainable development is a product of modernism and also answers its problems. Ambiguities that arise when sustainability, a concept grounded in biology, is used are addressed as are the strengths and grave shortcomings of environmental ethics. These problems are shown to provide the shakiness at the core of the concept of sustainable development. Values are discussed, but generally in environmental terms. The chapter ends with a call to "develop a broader and deeper foundation of a realist policy agenda and one which does not subtract 'interests' from its calculus."
Other chapters include an assessment of the interlinking problems of consumption and production and several case studies of sustainable development issues in southern countries. For example, a study of the historical development of the political economy in the Philippines demonstrates how development and environmental concerns have united. A study of land degradation in northern Ghana suggests that 1) local people understand and know about the relationship between environmental degradation and their needs, but must focus on short-term survival rather than long-term preservation. 2) Indigenous peoples have a substantial amount of technical environmental knowledge that must be taken into account when assessing the sustainability of practices in the area and setting new goals and policies. 3) Local people have a commitment to tree planting and resource management, and since they are the ones able to make changes, they must be supported monetarily and legally. Assessments of Mexico, and the coca raising in Bolivia suggest that local people often distrust government sustainability projects due to past mismanagement and failures, and that strengthening the possibility of adequate rural livelihoods prevents migration to the cities and overworking the land. For example, when people must go to cities to work, they do not have time to weed fields, and so they use chemical pesticides, which eliminate fodder for animals and fuel sources, thus depleting the resources of women and children left behind on farms.
Rowledge, L. R., R. S. Barton, et al. (1999). Mapping the journey: case studies in strategy and action toward sustainable development. Sheffield, Greenleaf.
SADCC Environment and Land Management Sector. Co-ordinating Unit. (1991). Sustaining our common future. Maseru, Lesotho, SADCC Environment and Land Management Sector Coordination Unit.
Schwind, P. J. (1973). Environment and urbanization in central Oahu: a resource base analysis. Honolulu], Dept. of Planning and Economic Development.
Southgate, D. D. and J. F. Disinger, Eds. (1987). Sustainable resource development in the Third World. Boulder, Westview Press.
Stadel, C. (1991). "Environmental stress and sustainable development in the tropical Andes." Mountain Research and Development 11(3): 213-223.
Vandermeer, J. (1991). "The political ecology of sustainable development -- the southern Atlantic coast of Nicaragua." Centennial Review 35(2): 265-294.
Weiner, D. M., B.; Moyo, S. (1992). "Energy for sustainable agricultrual development in Zimbabwe." Growth and Change 23(3): 355-362.
Whitman, J., Ed. (2000). The sustainability challenge for Southern Africa. New York, St. Martin's Press in association with Global Security Fellows Initiative, University of Cambridge.
Economics
Barker, T. (1993). "Is green growth possible?" New Economy 1(1): 20-25.
Beckerman, W. and J. Pasek (1997). "Plural Values and Environmental Valuation." Environmental Values 6(1): 65-86.
Bhalla, A. S. (1992). Environment, employment, and development. Geneva, International Labour Office.
Bojö, J., K.-G. Mäler, et al. (1990). Environment and development: an economic approach. Dordrecht; Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Brecher, J. and T. Costello (1994). Global village or global pillage: economic reconstruction from the bottom up. Boston, MA, South End Press.
Brown, L. R., C. Flavin, et al. (1991). Saving the planet: how to shape an environmentally sustainable global economy. New York, W.W. Norton.
Burney, J. (2000). "Is Valuing Nature Contributing to Policy Development?" Environmental Values 9(4): 511-520.
Carnoy, M. (1993). The New global economy in the information age: reflections on our changing world. University Park, Pa., Pennsylvania State University Press.
Cobb, J. B. (1992). Sustainability: economics, ecology, and justice. Maryknoll, N.Y, Orbis.
Cole, H. S. D. and University of Sussex. Science Policy Research Unit. (1973). Models of doom; a critique of The limits to growth. New York, Universe Books.
Common, M. S. (1995). Sustainability and policy: limits to economics. New York, Cambridge University Pres.
Common, M. S., R. K. Blamey, et al. (1993). "Sustainability and Environmental Valuation." Environmental Values 2(4): 299-334.
This article is an overview of environmental economics, and particularly discusses the techniques that economists use to value the environment. It discusses willingness to pay and willingness to accept studies, cost benefit analyses, travel cost methods, and contingent valuation studies. Damage avoidance, residual value, and substitute services are also mentioned. The author also discusses the accuracy and appropriateness of pseudo market valuation methods. The major problem with such procedures are that there have been no empirical studies to validate the evaluation methods.
Costanza, R., Ed. (1991). Ecological economics: the science and management of sustainability. New York, Columbia University Press.
Costanza, R. and H. E. Daly (1992). "Natural Capital and Sustainable Development." Conservation Biology 6(1): 37-46.
Costanza, R. and L. Wainger (1991). Ecological economics: the science and management of sustainability. New York, Columbia University Press.
Daly, H. E., J. B. Cobb, et al. (1989). For the common good: redirecting the economy toward community, the environment, and a sustainable future. Boston, Beacon Press.
Daly, H. E. and K. N. Townsend (1993). Valuing the earth: economics, ecology, ethics. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press.
Duchin, F. and G.-M. Lange (1994). The future of the environment: ecological economics and technological change. New York, Oxford University Press.
Friend, A., M. (1992). "Economics, ecology and sustainable development: are they compatible?" Environmental Values 1(2): 1992.
Defining sustainable economic development as assuming that a long term relationship exists between supply and demand of natural resources, that waste is within the assimilating capacity of the biosphere, and that productivity gains are based on decreasing inputs to production and increasing the efficiency of consumption, Friend finds that sustainable economic development is not compatible with neoclassical economics. He critiques this viewpoint with the basic principles of environmental economics. Friend also spends a bit of time noticing that the roots of household economy, political economy and ecology have a common root of oikos, but that ideas used in each of these disciplines merge in the concept of sustainable development. With this analysis he seems to imply that the neoclassical economic perspective has strayed too far from its root meanings, and is far from a useful concept when aiming for sustainable development, and so must be revised. (This article is expressly NOT an article debating whether sustainable development is in fact possible in practice.)
Frumkin, N. (2000). Guide to economic indicators. Armonk, N.Y., M.E. Sharpe.
Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1971). The entropy law and the economic process. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.
Goodland, R. and H. Daly (1993). "Why northern income growth is not the solution to southern poverty." Ecological Economics general(85-101).
Hawken, P. (1993). The ecology of commerce: a declaration of sustainability. New York, HarperCollins Publishers.
Henderson, H. (1990). "Beyond economics: new indicators for culturally specific, sustainable development." Development 3/4: 60-68.
Henderson, H. (1991). Paradigms in progress: life beyond economics. Indianapolis, IN, USA, Knowledge Systems.
Heuting, R. (1996). "Three persistent myths in the environment debate." Ecological Economics 18: 81-88.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD): IISDnet: Measurement and Indicators for Sustainable Development.
[http://www.iisd.org/measure/.]
Jackson, T. and N. Marks (1999). "Consumption, sustainable welfare, and human needs -- with reference to UK expenditure patterns between 1954 and 1994." Ecological Economics 28: 421-41.
Jacobs, M. (1995). "Sustainable Development, Capital Substitution and Economic Humility: A Response to Beckerman." Environmental Values 4(1): 57-68.
This article is a part of an ongoing debate. I will review this piece when I have reviewed the earlier articles.
Lawn, P. A. (2001). Toward sustainable development: an ecological economics approach. Boca Raton, Fla., Lewis Publishers.
[http://firstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/DECRead?standardNoType=1&standardNo=1566704111&sessionid=0&srcdbname=worldcat&key=8461ea7414c70b1daeefe6b2e9b522cd9329edc63e5d57b348ec2116417351dc&ectype=MOREINFO; http://firstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/DECRead?standardNoType=1&standardNo=1566704111&sessionid=0&srcdbname=worldcat&key=8461ea7414c70b1daeefe6b2e9b522cd9329edc63e5d57b348ec2116417351dc&ectype=TOC.]
MacNeill, J., P. Winsemius, et al. (1991). Beyond interdependence: the meshing of the world's economy and the earth's ecology. New York, Oxford University Press.
McWilliams, D. A. (1994). "Environmental justice and industrial redevelopment: economics and equality in urban revitalization." Ecological Law Quarterly 21(3): 705-783.
Mikesell, R. F. (1995). "The Limits to Growth: A Reappraisal." Resources Policy 21: 127-131.
Mitchell, G., A. May, et al. (1995). "Picabue-- a methodological framework for the development of indicators of sustainable development." International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 2(2): 104-123.
Munda, G. (1997). "Environmental Economics, Ecological Economics, and the Concept of Sustainable Development." Environmental Values 6(2): 213-233.
Munda presents introductory article on sustainable development for the non economist that discusses the basic positions of neoclassical and environmental economists, as well as what sustainability is, including the fact that sustainability can not be discussed only from an economic or ecological point of view. Differing ideas of values and sustainability are also discussed.
Neumayer, E. (2003). Weak versus Strong Sustainability: Exploring the Limits of Two Opposing Paradigms. Northampton, MA, Edward Elgar.
This text compares weak and strong sustainability, particularly focusing on an economic point of view, including ways to measure the two kinds of sustainability. Weak sustainability assumes that man made and natural capital are substitutable for each other. The goal of weak sustainability is to keep the total amount of natural and manmade capital intact Advocates of strong sustainability argue that natural and manmade capital are not infinitely substitutable. Consequently, they hold that the stock of natural capital must be held constant and the stock of human capital must separately remain constant. To achieve this goal, renewable natural capital must be increased at the same rate that nonrenewable natural capital is decreased.
O'Neill, J. and C. L. Splash (2000). "Appendix: Policy Research Brief Conceptions of Value in Environmental Decision-Making." Environmental Values 9(4): 521-536.
The author's stated goal is to "examine the limitations of current attempts to capture ethical values within existing economic instruments and consider how these limitations might be overcome." While this is a good overview of the limitations, the article is not long or detailed enough to give a good sense of how these limitations might be overcome.
Standard economic approaches assume several things about the decision making process as it pertains to individuals and their values. First, it is assumed that one's values express one's preferences. Secondly, these preferences are ordered, transitive, reflexive, complete and continuous. Third, the strength of one's preference for small changes in a stock of goods is expressed in their willingness to pay for their satisfaction. Fourth, people have "subjective probabilities about the likelihood of different possible outcomes." Fifth, people always act to obtain the greatest expected satisfaction of preferences. These assumptions are the basis of willing to pay or willing to accept methods of incorporating values into economics as well as hedonic pricing, the travel cost method, and contingent valuation. However, all of these assumptions may be questioned.
Another view of values in economics is that certain things, particularly environmental goods and services cannot be valued economically, for to do so can be taken to be a betrayal of moral commitment to a group such as one's future offspring, or to the environment itself. This perspective is not captured adequately in adjustments to the market listed above.
The authors recognize that environmental decision making is about more than mere economics, but also involves ethical commitments and perceptions of fairness. To address these dimensions of decision-making the authors suggest that processes of decision making must involve a variety of individuals and analytical tools. A few guidelines are suggested, but are not developed.
Parker, K. (1993). "Economics, Sustainable Growth, and Community." Environmental Values 2(3): 233-245.
This article aims to provide a "regulative ideal of sustainable growth which is acceptable at the social level, and which encourages the development of genuine community." After discussing some basic economic principles, including growth and development, Parker investigates John Dewey's writings on the life of individuals. Working from Dewey's idea as the enjoyment of life as the true goal of the economic process, Parker moves to discussing how such a goal could be realized at the social level. He finds diversity of activities, and the sustainability of such activities to be important concepts to reach such a goal. Finally, he examines ethics and ecology as the basis for a conception of what concerns the good of the community.
The most interesting part of this work is the treatment of Dewey, as most of this article is not detailed enough to be very helpful in suggesting ways sustainable growth can be integrated in community life.
Pearce, D. W. (1994). Project and policy appraisal: integrating economics and environment. Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; Washington, D.C.: OECD Publications and Information Centre [distributor].
Pearce, D. W., E. Barbier, et al. (1990). Sustainable development: economics and environment in the Third World. Brookfield, VT, Gower Pub. Co.
Pearce, D. W. and J. J. Warford (1993). World without end: economics, environment, and sustainable development. New York, N.Y., Published for the World Bank [by] Oxford University Press.
Perelman, L. J. (1976). The global mind: beyond the limits to growth. New York, Mason/Charter.
Perrings, C. and Beijer Institute. (1995). Biodiversity loss: economic and ecological issues. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Pezzey, J. (1992). Sustainable development concepts: an economic analysis. Washington, D.C, World Bank.
Pirages, D. C. (1977). The Sustainable society: implications for limited growth. New York, Praeger.
Rees, W. (1996). "Revisiting carrying capacity: Area-based indicators of sustainability." Population and Environment 17(3): 195-215.
Rees, W. E. (1992). "Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 121-130.
Rostow, W. W. (1956). "The takeoff into self-sustained growth." Economic Journal 66(261): 25-48.
Ruttan, V. W., Ed. (1992). Sustainable agriculture and the environment: perspectives on growth and constraints. Boulder, Westview Press.
Schuetz, J. (2000). "Sustainability, Systems and Meaning." Environmental Values 9(3): 373-382.
Steer, A. D., L. H. Summers, et al. (1992). Development and the environment. New York, N.Y., Published for the World Bank [by] Oxford University Press.
Tulchin, J. S. and A. I. Rudman (1991). Economic development and environmental protection in Latin America. Boulder, L. Rienner.
Turner, R. K., D. Pearce, et al. (1993). Environmental economics: an elementary introduction. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
Waterford, J. J. (1995). "Environment, health, and sustainable development: the role of economic instruments and policies." Bulletin of the World Health Organization 73(3): 387-395.
Energy
Capello, R., P. Nijkamp, et al. (1999). Sustainable cities and energy policies. Berlin; New York, Springer.
Costanza, R. (1980). "Embodied energy and economic valuation." Science 210(1219-1224).
Daly, H. E. and A. F. Umana, Eds. (1981). Energy, economics, and the environment: conflicting views of an essential interrelationship. Boulder, CO, Westview Press.
Humphrey, C. R. and F. R. Buttel (1982). Environment, Energy, and Society. Belmont, CA, Wads worth Publishing Co.
Though the specifics of this book are rather dated, it is an interesting look at the sociological perspective of the environmental movement. Brief historical overviews of topics such as the rise of environmentalism and its historic roots in the relation between science, religion, economics etc.; the founding of OPEC and the history of the energy crisis of 1972-73, a brief history of sociology focusing on Weber, Marx and Durkheim, the rise of environmental sociology. The main structure of the book is to examine issues such as population, limits to growth, the energy crisis, and world hunger. Facts are discussed and then three sociological viewpoints that explain how the situation came to be are outlined. These three general positions are the conservative, liberal and radical, which align with Durkheim, Weber, and Marx respectively. The Conservative approach suggests that incremental changes will solve any environmental problems, and focuses on technological fixes. The liberal approach suggests that substantial structural changes are necessary but that capitalism is the best type of economy. The liberals focus on redistribution of wealth and increasing output. The radical position claims that capitalism itself is the cause of environmental problems so it must be discarded to solve environmental crises. Radicals suggest that a massive redistribution of political power, wealth and output is necessary and that the world system needs to be disjointed to focus on the improvement of local initiatives.
Patterson, M. G. (1996). "What is Energy Efficiency?" Energy Policy 24: 377-390.
Steen, N., Energy and Environmental Programme (Royal Institute of International Affairs), et al. (1994). Sustainable development and the energy industries: implementation and impacts of environmental legislation. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs Energy and Environmental Programme; Washington, DC: Earthscan Publications; Distributed in North America by the Brookings Institution.
Templet, P. (1997). The Full Economic Costs of Louisiana's Oil/Gas and Petrochemcial Industries, People First: Developing Sustainable Communities.
[http://www.leanweb.org/pub.]
Environmental Justice
Boyle, E. P. (1993). "Its not easy being green: the psychology of racism, environmental discrimination, and the argument for modernizing equal protection analysis." Vanderbilt Law Review 46(4): 937-989.
Bullard, R. D. (1990). Dumping in Dixie: race, class, and environmental quality. Boulder, Westview Press.
In one of the earliest books about the link between social justice and environmental movements, Robert D. Bullard examines black efforts to improve the environmental conditions of their living and working conditions. It is shown that blacks have historically been underrepresented in the environmental movement which has tended to attract upper-middle class supporters who tend to focus on preserving wilderness areas, specific species, and reducing pollution in general. Often those in the lower classes have not been a part of this movement because other causes seem more pressing, because they do not have the experience or money to fight large corporations, or sometimes the hope that anything can be done. Through a extensive surveys, interviews, and investigations of government documents, Bullard describes five case studies of communities throughout the south where blacks fought toxic waste sites, and chemical factories in their neighborhoods. These efforts are often mobilized through existing social action groups including churches, and come about after environmental threats have been in the neighborhood for some time. The toxic waste sites and heavily polluting factories often ingratiate themselves to communities by promising much needed jobs, however they often, once built, rely on out of town or state laborers rather than employing locals. From these surveys, Bullard found that there is no anti-environmental bias among low income black communities, as is often thought, rather people identify the environment as a high concern, and strongly oppose environmental destruction, especially the kinds found in their communities. Problematically, people sometimes have to end up choosing between environmental safety and health and jobs, when certainly both should be possible. This book is particularly helpful for its detailed case studies, involving many incidents when companies were non compliant with city codes or laws only to go unpunished for decades while causing horrible health problems in residents and workers. It also outlines some steps to improving such community action, and makes a strong case that environmentalism cannot be separated from social justice.
Bullard, R. D. (1993). Confronting environmental racism: voices from the grassroots. Boston, Mass., South End Press.
This book overlaps heavily with Dumping in Dixie, though it includes examples taken from communities of color around the world, and deals with many types of environmental problems. It is most helpful for those looking for case studies of the deep connection between unsustainable practices and social justice. The authors have analyzed the environmental groups studied and found that most began as environmental organizations, they have multi-issue platforms, and tend to be led by women who see environmental problems as threats to their families, homes, and way of life. Time and time again it was shown that race is more significant than socio-economic status in the location of commercial hazardous waste facilities. It is particularly dismaying to learn that the EPA strategically ignored minority issues and is quick to respond when office workers are at risk from their workplace while the EPA is much slower to respond when farm workers are at risk. Studies of lead poisoning are also interesting.
Bullard, R. D. (1994). Unequal protection: environmental justice and communities of color. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books.
Cole, L. W. and S. R. Foster (2001). From the ground up: environmental racism and the rise of the environmental justice movement. New York, New York University Press.
Collin, R. W. (1994). "Review of the legal literature on environmental racism, environmental equity, and environmental justice." Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation 9(1): 121-171.
Collin, R. W., T. Beatley, et al. (1995). "Environmental racism: a challenge to community development." Journal of Black Studies 25(3): 354-376.
Hartley, T. W. (1995). "Environmental justice: an environmental civil rights value acceptable to all world views." Environmental Ethics 17(3): 277-289.
Haughton, G. (1999). "Environmental justice and the sustainable city." Journal of Planning Education and Research 18(3): 233-43.
Langhelle, O. (2000). "Sustainable Development and Social Justice: Expanding the Rawlsian Framework of Global Justice." Environmental Values 9(3): 295-323.
This article focuses on two arguments: that the Brundtland report's idea of sustainability includes an inherent focus on social justice, and that sustainable development is compatible with liberal theories of justice. Indeed, Langhelle argues that sustainable development moves past many liberal theories of justice in that it focuses on ecological interdependence, past inequality in resource use and the growth of limits, ideas that liberals often ignore.
Lord, C. P. and W. A. Shutkin (1994). "Environmental justice and the use of history." Environmental Affairs Law Review 83(22): 1.
Nordquist, J. (1995). Environmental racism and the environmental justice movement: a bibliography. Santa Cruz, CA, Reference and Research Services.
Novotny, P. (2000). Where we live, work, and play: the environmental justice movement and the struggle for a new environmentalism. Westport, Conn., Praeger.
Pepper, D. (1993). Eco-socialism: from deep ecology to social justice. London; New York, Routledge.
Portney, K. E. (1994). "Environmental justice and sustainability: Is there a critical nexus in the case of waste disposal or treatment facility setting?" Fordham Urban Journal Spring: 827-39.
Russell, D. (1989). "Environmental racism: minority communities and their battle against toxins." Amicus Journal 11(2): 162-182.
Scandrett, E. (2000). "Community work, sustainable development and environmental justice." Scottish Journal of Community Work and Development 6: 7-13.
Vasquez, X. C. (1993). "The North American Free Trade Agreement and environmental racism." Harvard International Law Journal 34(2): 357-379.
Warner, K. (2002). "Linking local sustainability initiatives with environmental justice." Local Environment 7(1): 35-47.
Ethics and Philosophy
Attfield, R., A. Belsey, et al. (1994). Philosophy and the natural environment. Cambridge England; New York, NY, Cambridge University Press.
[http://www.loc.gov/catdir/description/cam026/94010025.html; http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/cam025/94010025.html.]
Bennett, J. and W. Chaloupka (1993). In the nature of things: language, politics, and the environment. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.
Brennan, A. (1992). "Moral Pluralism and the Environment." Environmental Values 1(1): 15-33.
Cooper, D. E. and J. A. Palmer (1992). Environment in Question: Ethics and Global Issues. New York, Routledge.
This book is intended to be used as a text for an environmental issues course. It addresses issues from a variety of fields - economics, ethics, ecology etc. and on a variety of topics. It could be a good sourcebook, but only a few articles explicitly discuss sustainability.
The first of these, "Towards A Sustainable Future" by Joy A. Palmer gives a brief history of Our Common Future. Then twelve priorities for concern are outlined based on the author's review of many publications about sustainability. This article basically just reviews the problems of sustainability and concludes that we need better policies and interdisciplinary approaches to sustainability and particularly more education. This could be a good introduction piece, but doesn't offer anything new or compelling.
Vandana Shiva's "Recovering the Real Meaning of Sustainability" is a bit more helpful. Shiva suggests that the meaning of sustainability is lost when it is recognized that development in economic terms and commercialization are roots of the ecological crisis in the third world, yet these same techniques are offered as a cure for the crisis in the form of sustainable development. Shiva proposes that the false sense of sustainability is based on three flaws: "primacy is assigned to capital," production and conservation are divided and conservation is dependent on capital, and assuming the substitutability of nature and capital. For Shiva, the real meaning of sustainability refers to nature and people's sustainability including the recognition that nature supports our lives, providing the main source of our sustenance. Consequently, we need to maintain the integrity of processes and cycles in nature.
DesJardins, J. R. (1997). Environmental ethics: an introduction to environmental philosophy. Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Pub. Co.
Elliot, R. and A. Gare (1983). Environmental philosophy: a collection of readings. St. Lucia, Queensland; New York, University of Queensland Press.
Elliot, R. (1995). Environmental ethics. Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press.
This is an edited volume of a variety of articles - see notes. Willams' article is a very economic based approach that does not adequately address the difficulties of determining the maximum sustainable yield although it is the approach she advocates. Callicott discusses the relation between land ethics, environmental ethics, and animal liberation. Rolston claims that there is not enough concern for or conservation of species. He argues this must be done and to do so we need an unprecedented mixture of biology and ethics, though I was not that impressed with his justification for conservation since there was so little of it, nor was I impressed with his indication of the way forward. I think the piece is just too short for adequately addressing these topics. Elliot's piece is an interesting examination of whether nature can be restored to its original value. He posits that we should strategically argue that restoration proposals are empirically inadequate, though they may be the best option at times when the needs of all are considered. His reasoning hinges on several ideas, but mainly that there are sources of value that cannot be replaced, and that the way systems and entities come into being is important in establishing their value. The more interesting of the later articles include the Routley's very logical discussion of human chauvinism. Matthews takes a different stance as she argues that of two ways to view the universe (with substance or self-realizing frameworks) that the self-realizing framework is far superior since it allows us to identify with the universe as a self, realizing it has a grand telos and intrinsic value. Consequently, identifying with it cannot diminish us in value, contrary to the belief of some that identifying with the universe will make us seem less important. Also, while some argue that in the universe creation/preservation and destruction are equally important and so there is no incentive for humans to preserve rather than destroy, Matthews argues that all selves asymmetrically exhibit a will to exist and so we should attempt to do what all things do. (She does not discuss this but she should that self preservation for humans requires the interdependence of all and so to preserve ourselves implies that we must act with caution, ok. she does talk about it a little, just not right here.) Also she argues that unless we allow that the universe is a self, we couldn't identify with it because a self can only identify with beings which are also selves. Clements' article on the unnaturalness of stasis is a helpful analysis of the general implications of the concept of stasis and how it can or cannot be extended to a helpful goal. The final article in this book clearly outlines some of the major conceptual problems facing the environmental movement, however each problem is addressed in only a page or two, so the analyses are brief.
Elliot, R. (1998). Environmental ethics. Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press.
Engel, J. R. and J. G. Engel (1990). Ethics of environment and development: global challenge, international response. Tucson, University of Arizona Press.
The Brundtland report includes a statement that "human survival and well-being could depend on success in elevating sustainable development to a global ethic" and this book examines what kind of an ethic is necessary and how it differs from existing ethics. The first four chapters discuss the subject in general, while the last section is filled with responses from around the world, representing various geographic, political, and religious points of view. The introduction outlines five practical reasons why there is a renewed interest in morality and ethics today, and indicates that the moral challenge for sustainable development is to develop a shared moral language. It also highlights the alternatives to the term "sustainable development" used by authors in this book due to the destruction that has occurred from development in the past, and the ambiguity of the terms sustainable and development. These terms include "authentic integral development," "ecological/holistic world view," reverential development," ecosophical development," "noosphere," "just, participatory ecodevelopment," "communalism," and "desirable society." The general articles highlight the discrepancy between the amount people talk about the environment and the few changes that are actually made to stop or reverse harmful activities, and the need to combine social justice concerns and environmental concerns though they have often been separated in the past. Another article discusses the strengths and weaknesses of major religious traditions with respect to the environment and posits that religion can be helpful to the environmental movement in that it has the ability to critically assess conservation ethics. The article on science and religion holds that both science based and traditional cultural values need to be reassessed in order to obtain a coherent, adequate environmental development ethic.
Ferré, F. and P. Hartel (1994). Ethics and environmental policy: theory meets practice. Athens, University of Georgia Press.
Giampietro, M. and S. G. F. Bukkens (1992). "Sustainable development: scientific and ethical assessments." Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics 5(1): 27-57.
This is an excellent article that investigates the difficulties in assessing sustainable development. Two basic models are used. First, a energy theory of value can be used to describe the interactions of humans and the biosphere. While this approach is very theoretically sound, its weakness is that most systems are not evaluated based on the amount of energy that they use. Second, a hierarchy theory is examined where individual humans, human society, and the environment as a whole are seen as different levels in the hierarchy. As such claims made on the basis of priorities of one level are bound to conflict with the claims made on the basis of priorities of another level. Both scientific theories and ethical laws have a hard time working across levels in the hierarchy. Because of the great amount of uncertainty associated with environmental actions, and the fact that human activity has reached geological proportions, humans are responsible for preserving dynamic equilibrium between humans and the biosphere and learning by doing is no longer applicable. While this article does not put forth a great ethical solution to this dilemma of sustainable development, it includes an e description of the history of ethics, and how it must be transformed to address the environmental situation. This article also assesses the ideological camps present in debates about sustainable development and categorizes them as "blind technological optimists," "fundamental greenies" who think technology is the cause of all problems, "stubborn economists" who think that externalities do not have to be considered, "humanitarian zealots" who focus on the needs of individual humans without examining the greater ecological needs that will benefit all humans and the biosphere, and "blamer moralists" who point fingers at rich nations, without working to solve problems. An assessment of the energetic use of various countries is also included in this article - it is shown that there is a large gap in the in the graph between developing and developed countries. However, the graphs are not clearly labeled so they are not actually helpful. Given all of this evidence, the authors suggest that the main problem of today is to understand the ethical and scientific terms of the dilemma of human development to allow humans, and life to continue.
Gruen, L. and D. Jamieson (1994). Reflecting on nature: readings in environmental philosophy. New York, Oxford University Press.
Grumbine, R. E. (1994). "Wildness, wise use, and a sustainable development." Environmental Ethics 16(3): 227-249.
Johnson, V. and R. Nurick (1995). "Behind the headlines: the ethics of the population and environmental debate." International Affairs 71(3): 547-565.
Katz, E. (1993). "Artefacts and Functions: A Note on the Value of Nature." Environmental Values 2(3): 223-232.
Artefacts or human creations are compared with natural entities, the difference being that artifacts are always the result of human intention and design while the latter are independent of human purpose. Artefacts are designed with a function in mind, natural entities are not, and indeed do not have functions.
Artefacts are valued only for their instrumental, anthropocentric uses while natural entities can be valued for their autonomous existence. The autonomy of natural entities is what implies that they have value in and of themselves, because any autonomous subject has value. Since they have value, natural entities should be preserved.
Mannison, D. S., M. A. McRobbie, et al., Eds. (1980). Environmental Philosophy. Monograph Series, Department of Philosophy Research School of Social Sciences Australian National University.
This collection of essays is intended to stimulate serious philosophical reflection on the relation of human kind to everything else on the planet. The editors believe that if a change is to be made regarding our relationship with the environment, we must have a sturdy grounding for such action in a complete account of the rationale for such action.
Articles include and examination of why species should be preserved. Robert Elliot concludes that people are needed for something to have intrinsic value (what he calls the subjectivist post ion) because someone needs to be present to value the object for it to be valuable. However the intrinsic value of naturally evolved species is more difficult to establish because you have to notice that it is there. Elliot believes that species should be preserved because of this intrinsic value and their instrumental value to humans, yet we should not care about the destruction of species if no unwanted consequences for humans result.
William Godfrey-Smith reflects on whether rights can be ascribed to non-humans and if all values must be grounded in human interests and concerns. He concludes that all values do not have to be based on anthropocentric concerns because there is no reason to suppose that there is a single intrinsic good or value for the sake of which everything else is valuable. He admits that a world without valuers would be a world in which nothing was valued, but maintains this world would not necessarily be one without valuable things.
H.J. McCloskey reflects on the meaning of environmental ethics, trying to figure out what exactly it is.
Richard and Val Routley's "Human Chauvinism and Environmental Ethics" is the centerpiece of this book: many articles refer to their work, and it is by far the longest piece. The Routleys assert that chauvinism, or the tendency to discriminate against items or individuals outside a particular class without sufficient justification occurs in most moral codes, including the typical western ethics. The chauvinism present is human chauvinism, which is defined as a chauvinism against nonhumnas because there is nothing biological about humanity that could justify overwhelmingly favorable treatment for humans and unfavorable treatment for nonhumans. If biological divisions are to be made, they would logically be made at the level of consideration towards others or having preferences, but these do not fall along the human/nonhuman line. Due to this deep chauvinism in western ethics, the Routleys call for a new ethics and value theory, and consequently a new economics and politics etc. They posit that much of the old ethics can be retained if enriched with new environmental terms and value choice is reexamined.
Martinez-Alier, J., G. Munda, et al. (1998). "Weak comparability of values foundation for ecological economics." Ecological Economics 26: 277-86.
Merchant, C. (1992). Radical ecology: the search for a livable world. New York, Routledge.
Milbrath, L. W. (1993). "Redefining the Good Life in a Sustainable Society." Environmental Values 2(3): 261-269.
Milbrath posits that quality of life is necessarily subjective, and is undefinable in physical terms. He characterizes a high quality of life as a life that includes a "long-run sense of joy in living," a sense of physical well-being, a sense of fullness of life i.e. that one is or has achieved what one wants to become, and finally a sense of zest for life and hope and confidence that living will be good.
Milbrath notes that in contemporary society high quality of life is often measured only by material possessions, and that such possessions do not entail a high quality of life as defined above. Consequently, he advocates living a good life in a sustainable society by living more consciously, and recognizing what the good life actually entails.
While I agree with many of his points, including the fact that people can have loss of physical well-being and still be satisfied in life, I think Milbrath's definition leaves much to be desired. My main objection is that if people can have a high quality of life with poor physical well-being, there seems to be no imperative to feed, clothe and house people who do not have these things, or to seek medical treatment for those who are sick and such conclusions are morally repugnant. Consequently, I think that Milbrath's work needs a giant disclaimer: these theories of quality of life may work well if people have basic access to food, shelter, health care, and sanitation services. If one does not have one's basic physical needs met (for example, one is starving to death) I think it will be very difficult to have a zest for life, a great deal of hope, and a sense that one has achieved what one desires.
Norton, B. G. (1999). "Pragmatism, Adaptive Management, and Sustainability." Environmental Values general(4): 451-466.
Norton proposes using a pragmatic concept of truth developed by C.S. Peirce as an analogy for defining sustainability. Norton is particularly enamored with this analogy because he finds Peirce's definition shifts an understanding of truth from a correspondence to an external world to a forward looking approach that a necessary part of sustainability studies. He also finds that Pierce's emphasis on an "evolving, questioning community" is a trait that must be shared by advocates of sustainability who need to be able to constantly work with new information and search for truth.
Paden, R. (1994). "Against Grand Theory in Environmental Ethics." Environmental Values 3(1): 1994.
Environmental ethics should allow biology to influence their theories by influencing their concept of a moral community and work to establish mid-sized rather than grand theories.
All too often, grand theories are too technical for lay people to understand and almost unrelated to real environmental crises. Additionally, the outcome of grand theories tends to a flurry of critiques and attacks by theorists from other camps. This effort should be spent on doing something useful. The author suggests that one example of such useful work is the need for environmental ethicists to attack the absolute moral property rights advocated by many people. Paden also suggests that environmental ethicists could analyze cost-benefit analysis, risk analysis, or other policy tools or examine the value of natural beauty. The author admits that such work might not have the prestige of working with a grand theory, but encourages such work for its intense practicality.
Paden also discusses how environmental science could influence ethics. Three examples include, the extent of the moral community, a new model for understanding such a community, and as a test case for ethical theories. He points out that traditional moral communities are homologous groups of entities which are defined by a characteristic inherent to the theory. Paden suggests that by taking a clue from the variety of participants in any particular community, we can build a new model of a moral community that has a variety of participants. Given that the membership of such a community is diverse, it follows that the relationships between members would also be diverse. Consequently, what is moral in one relationship may not be in another, and one's duties to one thing may not be the same as one's duties to another. By understanding small bits of the moral community, environmental ethics could draw on biology and possibly come to understand the whole community better while being able to construct moral arguments to fit specific circumstances.
Redclift, M. (1993). "Sustainable Development: Needs, Values, Rights." Environmental Values 2(1): 3-20.
Sustainability has become popular because it can be used to support various agendas, both political and social. When the idea of sustainable is connected to development, the combination is the "high water mark of the Modernist tradition." (Where Modernism is the view that ideas grounded in the Western philosophy and science can provide a foundation for social criticism and understanding.) However, its emphasis on the diversity of views is clearly an expression of Postmodernism.
The concept of sustainable development arose as people needed to assert the importance of living within ecological limits yet still wanted to include the idea of progress. The term sustaining can mean "supporting a desired state of some kind" or conversely "enduring and undesired state." "The verb 'to sustain' carries a passive connotation, while the adjective 'sustainable' is used in an active sense." These differences in meaning are what give the idea of sustainability so many applications.
Evolution, scientific specialization and economic development on an enormous scale helped form the situation in which sustainability became important, and also formed the Modernist position. Reason and freedom are taken as ideals which allow progress. Science is taken as a way to transform nature and provided a way to critique our actions. While sustainability is a product of modernism in that it is based on science, and has a progressive goal, it also allows a way past the problems of Modernism in that it stresses intertemporal and interspatial equitable allocation of goods.
This article brings up an interesting point about the Brundtland definition of sustainability. Namely, the Brundtland definition suggests that needs can be separated from development, as they can be arrived at separate from development. However, this author argues that needs are historically and culturally defined and so they cannot be separated from development issues.
Sometimes using a biological concept of sustainability can be taken as a model for human intervention, and sometimes as a point of legitimization i.e. as a constraint on human development.
Redclift asserts that our view of the environment is closely tied to our view of science. Consequently, since sustainability is seen as a principle coming from the sciences (the sustainability of the ecosystems) and can morph into a moral imperative, it is a useful principle for policies. In other words, it has the scientific clout to make it accepted by many people, and yet has the moral weight to entice people to agree with it.
In the end, Redclift argues that we must "assume responsibility for our actions, while exploring the need to change our underlying social commitments" and that the idea of sustainability is uniquely positioned to help people achieve this goal because it has many meanings and draws from many disciplines.
Note: if this summary seems a bit scattered, I thought the article was as well. Redclift tries to tackle an enormous amount of material in this article (I didn't add in a summary of the difference between neoclassical and environmental economics and how this relates to sustainability since I've done so elsewhere) and ends up with an article that needs to be more clearly structured. I think a few hundred more pages and a good editor would help.
Reed, M. G. and O. Slaymaker (1993). "Ethics and sustainability: a preliminary perspective." Environment & Planning A 25(5): 723-739.
Singer, P. (2000). A companion to ethics. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., Blackwell Reference.
Slicer, D. (1995). "Is there an ecofeminism deep ecology debate?" Environmental Ethics 17(2): 151-169.
Soulé, M. E. and G. Lease (1995). Reinventing nature? responses to postmodern deconstruction. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Sterba, J. P. (1994). "Reconciling Anthropocentric and Nonanthropocentric Environmental Ethics." Environmental Values 3(3): 229-244.
Sterba, J. P. (1995). "From biocentric individualism to biocentric pluralism." Environmental Ethics 17(2): 191-208.
Sylvan, R. and D. Bennett (1994). The greening of ethics. Cambridge, UK: White Horse Press; Tucson, USA: University of Arizona Press.
The purpose of this book is to set out what is and is not environmental ethics, particularly the greening of ethics and applications of this greening. The authors identify three types of greening of ethics, all of which have as their core the setting of environmental values: to determine how the environment is to be valued and where value resides. These three types are shallow, intermediate, and deep.
Shallow environmental ethics focuses on prudential and instrumental arguments wherein it is noticed that human survival and well being depends on the well-being of the environment and therefore people are motivated to preserve the environment. This approach is also instrumental because it views nature and the environment as means to human ends and values. One example of such an author is John Passmore's Man's Responsibility for Nature which is discussed at length. Problems with this view include the fact that its adherents do not acknowledge the value of the environment, and that it so short-term focused that by the time people adopt a longer-term view it will be too late to reverse environmental damage.
Intermediate environmental ethicists argue that humans are not the only things that have value, and try to extend the realm of environmental ethics to otherkind. Examples of these authors are Leopold's land ethic and the argument from marginal cases exemplified by Peter Singer's case for animal liberation based on a call for consistency and equality, for uniform and similar treatments of all living things. These positions reject the idea that value only is in humans and their activities and consequently try to extend established ethical frameworks beyond the human realm. However, these arguments are still mostly human centered and it seems that human convenience could still override consideration for the environment for any small reason. The main problem with Singer's argument is that they tend to ignore large-scale environmental issues such as wilderness, forest destruction and overpopulation since he focuses on individual animals. Other problems with extensionist ethics are that when the theory is extended, you keep all of the old problems, and that these theories only look at human interactions. For example, when it seemed that only humans used tools, tool use was considered a sign of intelligence, but now that other animals are recognized as using tools, it is no longer taken to be such an indicator. Deep ecology rejects the idea that humans and human projects are the only valuable items and rejects the greater value assumption, that humans and human projects always outweigh other considerations and the value of other things.
Deep ecologists call for a non-human centered ethic, though this ethic is not supposed to replace the previously worked out interhuman ethics. This position recognizes that human beings are the moral agents, but are not ethically privileged. This type of ethic must be practical, i.e. it must be able to translate principles into actions. The founder of deep ecology is Arne Naess and it has been promoted extensively by Bill Devall. Deep ecology uses ecology and tries to state what is most needed to value the environment and ecological relationships. The authors of this book critique deep ecology because it has a less rigorous philosophical core, often intentionally. These authors outline four levels of deep ecology. 1. The source(s) of inspiration, insights and intuitions of the movement which can come from a variety of religious and philosophical traditions. 2. The principles that are derived from the first level and hold the movement together. 3. The generalized hypotheses of ways to behave toward the environment. 4. A level of actions that are specific for each case. The authors acknowledge that the main principles of deep ecology have been defined in various ways over the years, and that with time, the position is becoming more fragmented rather than more coherent. Other problems with deep ecology are its lack of philosophical core, its hesitancy to criticize social structures, politics and economics, and its lack of a satisfactory action theory since this position tends to focus on individual consciousness raising rather than fundamental changes in society.
As an alternative to deep ecology, the authors suggest a deep environmental theory named deep green theory developed by Richard Sylvian and Val Plumwood (formerly the Routleys) which begins with an rejection of human chauvinism and tries to develop a deep philosophical core to its position while advocating specific agendas and critiques of society. This book includes a very helpful comparison of deep ecology and deep green theory. Some highlights of this new theory include its willingness to expand across disciplines to applied ethics and other subjects where value theories are used.
At the end of the book, some practical strategies are discussed, focusing on the need for education, and top down as well as bottom up approaches to allow the new ethic to be as widespread as possible. The authors work with the idea of ethics as a commodity, and that many people need a new one, but don't realize it or seek one out.
I found this book to be one of the most helpful I have read so far, and plan to look into the deep green theory more closely.
Vanburen, J. (1995). "Critical environmental hermeneutics." Environmental Ethics 17(3): 259-275.
Zimmerman, M. E. (1994). Contesting earth's future: radical ecology and postmodernity. Berkeley, University of California Press.
[http://www.loc.gov/catdir/description/ucal041/93021431.html.]
General
Angell, D. J. R., J. D. Corner, et al., Eds. (1991). Sustaining earth: response to the environmental threat. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Attfield, R. and B. Wilkins (1994). "Sustainability." Environmental Values 3(2): 155-158.
This article argues that there are ethical criteria independent of the criterion of sustainability, and counters Nigel Dower's position that practices which should not be followed are not sustainable. The authors suggest that sustainability should not include moral weight, that a procedure may be sustainable even though it may not be worth sustaining. See the previous and response articles by Dower for more of the discussion.
Beckerman, W. (1994). "Sustainable development: is it a useful concept?" Environmental Values 3(3): 191-209.
Welfare maximization in economics should remain a top policy objective because it can accommodate distributional considerations without going to the extremes that sustainability inevitably ends. The strong sustainability argument, where sustainability takes priority over everything is totally impractical, and weak sustainability in which compensation is made for resources that are consumed is just a form of welfare maximization. Too much time and effort is being spent on developing the idea of sustainability when economics can take care of all of our problems.
Beckerman, W. (1995). "How Would you Like your 'Sustainability', Sir? Weak or Strong? A Reply to my Critics." Environmental Values 4(2): 169-179.
Herman Daly and Michel Jacobs critiqued Beckerman's article In Environmental Values, Autumn 1994, and this is his response to their critique. I have not yet obtained their article, so will not evaluate this article at this time.
Carroll, J. E. (1995). "Envisioning Ecological Sustainability: The Need and a Method." Environmental Values 4(2): 1995.
Carroll proposes that we cannot deal effectively with environmental problems because we do not have a vision of what life would be like without such problems, and consequently have no goal. Thus, he advocates establishing a "composite paradise" made of at least the following characteristics: places, and patterns which promote inspiration and fulfillment on all levels; things or ideas which promote sustainability, particularly through efficiency and helping humans without harming the natural ecosystem. Such a composite paradise must be related to each individual, and yet have broad elements on which we can agree. By forming such a consensus, Carroll believes that we will be able to structure environmental activities productively.
Chanarun, P. (2001). Natural resources management under the alternative view: toward sustainable development. Bangkok, Faculty of Economics Thammasat University: 5, 188 leaves.
Chiras, D. D. (1995). "Principles of sustainable development: a new paradigm for the twenty-first century, environmental carcinogenesis and ecotoxicology reviews." Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part C 13(2): 143-178.
Clarke, J. (1993). "Education, population, environment and sustainable development." International Review of Education 39(1-2): 53-61.
Clayton, A. M. H. and N. J. Radcliffe (1996). Sustainability: a systems approach. Boulder, WestviewPress.
This book attempts to fill a gap between materials about sustainability written for businesses or local authorities which give many concrete suggestions, but little theory, and those publications by specialists in the natural and social scientists that are theoretically important but are not very accessible to the average person. This book works with the basic Brundtland definition. Given the complex nature of environmental and economic systems, this book advocates a dynamic approach in which many factors are considered and sustainability assessment maps (SAM) are used to make decisions about sustainability. SAMs identify critical axes of change in a particular problem, assess each development option on the same basis, and graph the scores on each axis so the results are displayed graphically. A very interesting plot type is generated. (see attached picture).
This book also talk about the limits of such models and the practical changes in politics and society that need to be made to attain sustainability.
Common, M. S. (1995). "Beckerman and his Critics on Strong and Weak Sustainability: Confusing Concepts and Conditions." Environmental Values 5(1): 83-88.
This is a response to the Beckerman, Daly and Jacobs debate about sustainability. I will review this when I have read all preceding articles.
Costanza, R. and B. C. Patten (1995). "Defining and Predicting Sustainability." Ecological Economics 15: 193-196.
Court, T. d. l. (1990). Beyond Brundtland: Green Development in the 1990s. Atlantic Highlands, NJ, Zed Books Ltd.
A commentary on the Brundtland report that summarizes the report and the remarks of its critics from environmental groups and developing countries. The main critique is that Brundtland focuses on Western linear modes of development which have often led to environmental destruction and increasing poverty in developing nations, rather than to decreasing poverty and increasing living conditions which are goals of sustainable development. Many factual reports are presented as are case studies and opinions from around the world. A simple but very informative text.
Dalal-Clayton, B. and S. Bass (2002). Sustainable development strategies: a resource book. London, Earthscan.
Dower, N. (1994). "Worth Sustaining? Reply to Attfield and Wilkins." Environmental Values 3(2): 159-60.
Robin Attfield and Barry Wilkins have critiqued Dower's use of the term sustainable since they think he means "worthy of being sustained" and that it should mean "capable of being sustained." This is Dower's reply to their attack.
Dower clarifies that sustainability means "ought to be sustained" in certain, but not all contexts. Such contexts are those when sustainable development is presented as an "object of commitment or planning or a form of development which one is prepared to endorse." Dower acknowledges that after a process is determined to be sustainable, it must certainly be evaluated further to see if it is in fact desirable to have such a process. He also discusses other terms such as "desirable" and "development" which have multiple meanings, concluding that we must be aware of how language can influence policy decisions and not be too quick to adopt sustainable practices before they are evaluated to see if they are desired.
I find it interesting that this debate completely ignores the fact that it is very difficult to evaluate whether or not a process is in fact sustainable.
Dower, N. (2000). "Human Development - Friend or Foe to Environmental Ethics." Environmental Values 9(1): 39-54.
Dower asserts that by focusing on human development, we are focusing somewhat less on economic growth than we traditionally do when discussing development, an important shift since increased wealth does not necessarily correlate with increased human well-being. Though he focuses on the concept of human development for its universal nature, he notes that the anthropocentrism inherent in human development is problematic. Dower suggests that two conceptual shifts (widening the conception of society to include the natural environment, and recognizing a link between the environment and development) will make the adequate environmental care more likely.
As a side note, Dower argues that sustainability isn't enough to make development appropriate even if it is necessary because a practice could be sustainable but undemocratic, socially unjust, or cruel to animals. He is also wary of focusing too much on sustainability because he thinks it focuses so much on the future that not enough emphasis is spent on changing attitudes and behaviors now.
Downs, A. (1972). "Up and down with ecology: The issue-attention cycle." Public Interest 28(Summer).
El Serafy, S. (1995). "In Defense of Weak Sustainability: A Response to Beckerman." Environmental Values 5(1): 75-81.
This is a response to the Beckerman, Daly and Jacobs debate about sustainability. I will review this when I have read all preceding articles.
Faucheux, S. F., G; Noel, J-F (1995). "What forms of rationality for sustainable development?" Journal of Socio-Economics 24(1): 169-209.
Graf, W. D. (1992). "Sustainable Ideologies and Interests: beyond Brundtland." Third World Quarterly 13(3): 553-559.
Henderson, H. (1994). "Paths to sustainable development: the role of social indicators." Futures 26(2): 125-137.
Himle Horner Inc. and Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance. (1996). Summary and report on research conducted on sustainable development. S.l., Himle Horner Inc.
Hosaka, M. (1993). "Sharing local development experiences transnationally: networking in support of community and local initiatives." Environment & Urbanization 5(1): 132-147.
Sharing Local Development Experiences Transnationally: Networking in Support of Community and Local Initiatives This paper discusses the ways in which international networks can help community based organizations, NGOs and local governments share experiences in housing and settlement improvement. It describes two types of networks that have been established, their strengths and weaknesses, as well as some theory about what characteristics make a strong and effective such network. It is only tangentially about sustainability, in that people in such networks are trying to achieve housing conditions that are adequate and sustainable. This article may also be helpful for anyone working with local initiatives to promote social change.
Jackson, T. (2003). "Sustainability and the 'Struggle for Existence': The Critical Role of Metaphor in Society's Metabolism." Environmental Values 12(3): 289-316.
The metaphor "struggle for existence" used by Darwin is shown to have had incredible influence on two strands of thought now relevant to sustainable development. First, the biophysical critique of conventional development advocated by ecological economists, in which traditional economics and development theory are shown to neglect the biological and physical constraints on development and suggestions made for how to reverse these trends. Second is modern evolutionary psychology which suggests that in certain ways the economic system, and the individuals within it behave similarly to an ecological system driven by evolution.
As an interesting side note, Jackson examines the two strands of thought in his article as responses to Ludwig Boltzmann's definition of the struggle for existence of living beings as a struggle for available energy. With this connection of disciplines, Boltzmann metaphorically connected diverse branches of science, and suggested a way of reasoning about environmental limits to human development. Jackson traces the history of the development of these ideas to arrive at the two positions.
Jackson finds that while most people examining sustainable development follow the first pathway (ecological economics), the second (developmental psychology) must not be neglected since it demonstrates that there is a relationship between social evolution and the appropriation of material resources. Namely, the evolutionary psychology path indicates that our chances for achieving sustainable development are remote at best since the struggle for existence never ceases in nature, or in the marketplace. Neo-Darwinian theories of human behavior also suggest that consumption is an important part of evolution in that through consumption we distinguish ourselves in relation to the opposite sex and with respect to our sexual competitors, offering our genes the best chance of success. From this perspective, consumption is necessary and cannot be successfully stopped through technological or behavioral changes.
Jackson suggests several responses to the bleakness of the implications of evolutionary psychology for sustainable development. First, we can accept the conceptual framework of struggling for existence and recognize the limits placed on the possibility of sustainable development by the biological sciences and evolutionary psychology. Second, the framework of struggle as a part of development can be accepted but balanced to some degree by models of evolution such as cooperation, altruism, and symbiosis (for example, the work of Lynn Margulis). A third possible response is to try to break out of the conceptual framework, rejecting the image of struggle for existence. Jackson suggests that this option would involve such an incredible amount of work given the influence of "struggle for existence" on so many areas of scientific thought, and leaves the development of a new worldview to someone else.
James, V. U. (1996). Sustainable development in Third World countries: applied and theoretical perspectives. Westport, Conn., Praeger.
Karshenas, M. (1994). "Environment, technology, and employment: towards an new definition of sustainable development." Development and Change 25(4): 723-756.
Korten, D. C. (1992). "Sustainable development: a review essay." World Policy Journal 9(1): 181-212.
Lele, S. M. (1991). "Sustainable development: a critical review." World Development 19(6): 607-621.
Lindner, W. (1989). "Sustainable Development: From Theory to Practice." Development 2(3): special issue.
Litsios, S. (1994). "Sustainable development is healthy development." World Health Forum 15(2): 193-195.
Meadows, D. H. (1991). The global citizen. Washington, DC, Island Press.
This book is written by a person in environmental systems dynamics who became a journalist writing a weekly column called the global citizen. The book is a collection of her columns arranged in topical chapters with a brief introduction to each chapter providing commentary, reflection, and summary. While the facts of the book are a bit dated (from the mid 1980s to early 1990s), it provides great pieces on various environmental topics from a systems point of view. It is quite interesting to see Meadows' attempts to indicate the interrelatedness of environmental problems while writing short, compelling articles. Her perspective often strays from the polar positions often trumpeted when environmental, or any political issues are discussed as she strives to assert positions that take a wider look at the problems, including the deep reasons for conflict. This book is a welcome breath of fresh air after so many technical pieces. "The Man Who Planted Trees and Grew Happiness" is a great story of inspiration that invites a deep reflection on the meaning and promise of myths. It is also interesting to read a collection of articles from twenty years ago and realize that in some ways things have not really changed at all, and in others, (the widespread availability of recycling) they have. Also, to realize that some subjects so popular a few years ago such as rainforest beef, have fallen off the radar screens, which makes one wonder if the implemented changes were really adequate, or just enough to shut people up.
Miller, R. M. (1994). "Interactions and collaboration in global change across the social and natural sciences." Ambio 23(1): 17-24.
Mitlin, D. (1992). "Sustainable development: a guide to the literature." Environment & Urbanization 4(1): 111-124.
Mitlin, D. and J. Bicknel (1992). "Will UNCED Sustain Development?" Environment & Urbanization 4(1): 3-7.
Before the Earth Summit (the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992) people were hopeful about environmental change because many countries were moving toward democratic and accountable government, many environmental issues had been clarified, and the North-South divide and connection had been recognized. However, many of these insights were overlooked at the conference itself. The rest of this article clarifies these issues that should be addressed, particularly focusing on the differences of the North and South with respect to environmental problems and solutions, and ends on a hopeful note that there is still time for change.
National Commission on the Environment. (1993). Choosing a sustainable future: the report of the National Commission on the Environment. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Norton, B. (1992). "Sustainability, Human Welfare and Ecosystem Health." Environmental Values 1(2): 97-111.
Norton contrasts two definitions of sustainability. Social scientific definitions such as the one used by the Brundtland Commission define sustainability as a relationship between the present and future welfare of people. The limits of this approach are that it assumes infinite substitutability of resources and unlimited resources. Instead of critiquing the possibility of mainstream economics (as presumed by the Brundtland Commission) incorporating intergenerational equity, Norton suggests a new approach, scientific contextualism. This approach "recognizes that there are non-negotiable obligations regarding our use of resources and that those obligations can be understood as the obligations the present has to perpetuate the conditions necessary for the continuation of the human species and of its culture." This approach uses a variety of moral rules which are applied under content and context dependent conditions. Norton admits that determining when a practice is sustainable scientifically, is very difficult, but maintains that using scientific models to protect the health and integrity of the ecosystem is still a necessary goal. Additionally, as the ecosystem including living and nonliving processes continually changes, Norton advocates the development of an ecological paradigm that will protect and restore the integrity of ecological systems to preserve the total diversity of the system, defined as the sum of species and associations and the autonomous processes that maintain such diversity. He suggests five axioms of ecosystem management:
1. The Axiom of Dynamism: all is in flux
2. The Axiom of Relatedness: all processes are related to all other processes
3. The Axiom of Hierarchy: processes are not related equally, rather systems exist within system
4. The Axiom of Creativity: "The autonomous processes of nature are creative and represent the basis for all biologically based productivity. The vehicle of that creativity is energy flowing through systems which in turn find stable contexts in larger systems, which provide sufficient stability to allow self-organization within them, through repetition and duplication."
5. The Axiom of Differential Fragility: ecological systems can absorb human wastes and disruptions to various degrees.
By using these axioms, Norton demonstrates that his scientific contextualist approach to sustainability approaches sustainability at a variety of levels as opposed to the social scientific definitions which focus on people, and consequently that his approach can be merged with moral obligations to act sustainability.
As with many discussions of sustainability, Norton recognizes that ecosystems change, but assumes that through this change they naturally preserve diversity. Is this always the case?
O'Neill, J. (1993). Ecology, policy, and politics: human well-being and the natural world. London; New York, Routledge.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2000). Towards sustainable development: indicators to measure progress: proceedings of the OECD Rome conference. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Orr, D. W. (1992). Ecological literacy: education and the transition to a postmodern world. Albany, State University of New York Press.
Parikh, K. S. (2001). Enjoy it by giving it up: toward sustainable development patterns. Bombay, India, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research.
Pezzey, J. (1992). "Sustainability: An Interdisciplinary Guide." Environmental Values 1(4): 321-362.
Pezzey defines sustainability as the “non-declining utility of a representative member of society for millennia into the future.” Where utility is “whatever people maximize when they make rational choices.” Pezzey uses the millennia condition in order to think in much longer terms than traditional political or social timelines, however he notes that such a timeline is still inadequate to allow genetic evolution in humans to adapt to changes in the environment.
sing this definition, Pezzey draws together ideas from physics, ecology, biology, anthropology, history, philosophy, economics and psychology to analyze the potential for sustaining industrial civilization. Pezzey finds that such potential is highly uncertain for various reasons, primarily because it is difficult to know how long we will be able to substitute tools and knowledge for natural resources. Additionally, with time, people adapt to technological or genetic innovations (such as sharper teeth, or a superior legal system, or leather shoes) and they become necessary in that a life without such innovations would then be worse than before. These factors must be taken into account when discussing sustainability, but often have not been.
When discussing the influence on sustainability, Pezzey argues that the evolution and adoption of a sustainable ethic will depend more on how such an ethic effects people’s perceptions of threats to their environment than on abstract philosophical arguments. He also points out that a new ethical system may not arise quickly enough to achieve sustainability.
Pezzey also analyzes the relationship between education and development, finding that during the process of industrialization, people have become more and more educated, largely to run and create the machines necessary for industrialization. He argues that this process will eventually be limited by the human capacity for education in one lifetime, if knowledge is cumulative.
(Of course, this reasoning assumes that some other factor did not limit sustaining a constant living standard first.)
Pezzey also spends a brief amount of time examining environmental methods of valuing the environment, and problems with such methods. Much more time is spent examining different types of societies (statically sustainable societies, developed societies, and developing societies) and the problems each faces with respect to sustainability. While Pezzey admits that not all hunter-gatherer societies were sustainable, he also tends to lift them up as an ideal. He could have been a bit more careful in his analysis here – especially to point out that many hunter-gatherer societies were sustainable only because their population densities were low so that the environment had ample time to regenerate.
Pezzey poses a number of difficult question about the sustainability of sectors or nations given the amount of interrelatedness in today’s global economy and in the environment. He leaves these questions to be answered by a more specific analysis elsewhere, though he does address the question of exploitation of poor countries by the rich. On this issue he advocates the development of a theory of exploitation that lays out constraints on borrowing that are needed to allow productive potential of all nations, take monopoly power into account, and allow for justice, possibly retrospectively.
After tying these analyses together, Pezzey concludes that it will be difficult to respond to challenges of sustainability quickly enough to avert potential threats. Yet, he advocates the use of our capacity for far-sighted, cooperative precautions and our ability to be clever with the hope that we will be able to effect change.
Pimentel, D., L. Westra, et al. (2000). Ecological integrity: integrating environment, conservation, and health. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
President's Council on Sustainable Development. Sustainable Communities Task Force. (1998). Sustainable Communities Task Force report. Washington, DC, President's Council on Sustainable Development: [U.S. G.P.O.
Redclift, M. R. (1987). Sustainable development: exploring the contradictions. London; New York, Methuen.
This is a fairly typical book about sustainable development in that it examines how the concept evolved, why the concept is important, the environmental problems associated with unsustainability and suggests a few, though not many ways to proceed. It gives a particularly good look at the ways international trade and "development" aid often serve to harm the countries they claim to help by fostering, dependency on aid, droughts through poor land management, and massive debts. However, the figures and examples are rather dated by this point. Energy balances, particularly how much energy is used to produce one calorie of food is one focus of the analysis of agriculture.
This book also contributes some unique things to the field. First of all, it is written during the Brundtland study, and so it offers an interesting perspective on the hope for the study. Given its timing, this volume also offers more early history of the concept of sustainability (starting in the early 1970) than later works. Finally, this book is unusual because it discusses the social theory behind sustainability, especially the reasons that Marxism aligns or does not but should align with concepts of sustainability (in contrast to capitalism). Redcliff maintains that Marxism is a fruitful place to talk about sustainability because it is based on the social construction of nature and the naturalization of human consciousness. However, Marxism still needs to address several issues to have a strong position for sustainability. First, it must address the way nature is transformed under capitalism and the implications for such transformations. Second, it must be concerned with the distribution of costs and benefits of environmental change. Third, it must be concerned about the relationship between environmental issues and central Marxist issues such as alienation and class struggle.
A fault of this text is that it focuses almost entirely on issues of agriculture and population. Without adequately recognizing the importance of other areas such as industry and energy use, I question whether Redcliff has too narrow a definition of sustainability.
Rydin, Y. (1999). "Can We Talk Ourselves into Sustainability? The Role of Discourse in the Environmental Policy Process." Environmental Values general(4): 467-484.
Rydin summarizes the various attitudes toward the variety of definitions of sustainability -- some aim for clarification, others think the vagueness is helpful. More helpfully, she analyzes the problems associated with the commonly advocated model of environmental policy-making in which diverse stakeholders come together to find consensus over an issue. The first major problem with this model is that some people do not want to be involved in such a process, even if they will be affected by its outcome, while others so desire to be involved that they will be over represented. Another problem is that consensus building is incredibly difficult. Finally, there is the problem of the role of professional policy makers given the desire for an informed public. It is hoped that such professionals can serve as educators and mother of the general public. However, on all of these potential problems, Rydin spends more time discussing the problematic situation than suggesting concrete ways in which such problems can be resolved or mediated. Though she focuses on the process of working towards sustainability, she points out that even if such processes work well, this will not ensure that the goal of sustainability is met.
Schor, J. B. and B. Taylor (2002). Sustainable planet: solutions for the twenty-first century. Boston, Beacon Press.
Silver, C. S., R. S. DeFries, et al. (1990). One earth, one future: our changing global environment. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.
Smith, G. A. (1992). Education and the environment: learning to live with limits. Albany, State University of New York Press.
Starke, L. and Centre for Our Common Future. (1990). Signs of hope: working towards our common future. Oxford [England]; New York, Oxford University Press.
Templet, P. (1999). "Grazing the commons: An empirical analysis of externalities, subsidies and sustainability." Ecological Economics 12: 141-59.
Turner, R. K., Ed. (1998). Sustainable environmental management. Boulder, Westview Press.
Turpin, J. and L. A. Lorentzen (1996). The gendered new world order: militarism, development, and the environment. New York, Routledge.
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements. (1990). People, settlements, environment, and development: improving the living enviro[n]ment for a sustainable future. Nairobi, Kenya, United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat).
Wilcox, B. A. (1992). "Defining sustainable development." Environmental Science & Technology 26(10): 1902-1902.
Winpenny, J. T. and Overseas Development Institute (London England) (1991). Development research: the environmental challenge. London, Overseas Development Institute; Boulder, Westview Press.
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. Oxford; New York, Oxford University Press.
This volume contains the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, commonly known as the Brundtland report. It is intended to be a "global agenda for change" which outlines long term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000. Several major policy directions are discussed including population, food security, species and ecosystems, energy, industry, urbanization, the economy, and legal changes. A chapter is devoted to each of these areas. The basic definition of sustainability used by the commission, and one of the most influential since this report is that "humanity has the ability to make development sustainable -- to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." The commission also says that ". in the end, sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological developments and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs."
Two basic concepts make up this definition of sustainability: needs and limitations. Needs are specifically "the essential needs of the world's poor to which priority should be given." Limitations are those "imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."
Each topical chapter highlights some policy directives and demonstrates why such policies are important to secure a sustainable future.
Limits of this report are discussed in great detail elsewhere (Beyond Brundtland), and my two major critiques echo these. First, the commission does not discuss in great enough detail the ways in which the problems of the developing world are linked to, and yet different from the problems in the developed world as it tends to read with the perspective of the developed world. Secondly, the report mentions the role of women only in passing, as another minority group. Given the large impact women have on agriculture, decreasing population growth, and improving literacy rates, this subject should have been addressed in much more detail. For instance, the report should have addressed why the ability to of women to affect these issues is unique, and addressed how such connections can be utilized.
Worldwatch Institute. State of the world: a Worldwatch Institute report on progress toward a sustainable society. New York, Norton.
Young, J. (1990). Sustaining the earth / John Young. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.
History
Dovers, S. (1994). "Sustainability and 'pragmatic' environmental history: a note from Australia." Environmental History Review 18(3): 21-36.
Glacken, C. J. (1967). Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley, University of California Press.
Glacken finds that until the end of the eighteenth century, western reflection on the environment was dominated by three questions: Is the earth a purposefully made creation? Has the climate and structure of the earth influenced the moral and social nature of individuals and human culture? How have humans changed the earth from its hypothetical pristine condition. Glacken reviews the work of major, and some minor thinkers, and finds that nearly all of them touched on at least one of these questions.
Two major environmental theories have existed since the Greeks. One is based on physiology or humor theory and one is based on the geographical positioning of important cites where a site's position in the wind or altitude gives it and its inhabitants certain characteristics. By the end of Aristotle's life, several ideas about the relationship between people and the earth had been well established. Namely, a divine force could be discerned by looking at creation. This creator ordered chaos into the world that we see such tat there is a final cause inherent in all natural processes. There is a fullness and richness of life in nature and plants exist for animals and animals for people. In the exegetical work of Christians during the Patristic period three ideas solidified which became very influential: God as maker, God as artisan, and God manifest in creation. During the medieval period there were strong relationships between the ways that the environment was changed by human agency and its social and economic history. For example, forests were maintained for noble hunters at the expense of the less well-off who wanted to clear them to increase their arable land or use them as a food source. A great deal of time is spent in this book discussing the relationships that people drew between natural environments and the cultures of peoples. Over the centuries, broad interests narrowed for example, people began thinking about the relationship between environment and diet, religion, and technology rather than merely drawing conclusions about how ethnic character stereotypes relate to geography and climate. In the eighteenth century, the idea that the environment physically limits human population growth, human well being and consequently human aspirations and achievements was first recognized.
Along with the understanding that the three main questions were very important in reflection on the relationship between humans and their environment from the ancient times to the present, Glacken draws a few other conclusions. The growing natural history research of the eighteenth century encouraged interest in other forms of life and the physical environment as a whole. In particular, people began to recognize that "there is a primordial balance in nature that civilized man interferes with at his own risk," and that purposeful change can create a better environment, as evidenced by the effects of drainage and clearing on climate and health. By the end of the eighteenth century, several scholars understood more deeply than ever before the dramatic effects that people can have on the natural environment. However, people did not delve into the possible dangers of such tampering in a coherent way.
Golley, F. B. (1993). A history of the ecosystem concept in ecology: more than the sum of the parts. New Haven, Yale University Press.
Gottlieb, R. (1993). Forcing the spring: the transformation of the American environmental movement. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Huges, J. D. (1995). "Ecology and development as narrative themes of world history." Environmental History Review 19(1): 1-36.
McClaren, J. (1993). New Pacific Literatures: Culture and Environment in the European Pacific. New York, Garland Publishing Inc.
This book examines literature of North America and the Pacific, particularly focusing on people's views of the land, and of their own and other cultures. The time from the first European explorers with their vision of the new world as exploitable to support Europe to the way native peoples coped with changing relationships to land and the loss of cultural identity with colonization to the present melting pot vision and image of the United States as paradise are all examined in detail. An interesting way to examine the ways people view the land, though it would be more interesting if one had read, or at least heard of more of the literature being discussed.
Merchant, C. (1980). The death of nature: women, ecology, and the scientific revolution. San Francisco, Harper & Row.
A historical examination of ecological perspectives that changed perceptions of nature from a living being to something mechanical to exploit. Merchant examines the relationship of women to nature in the Western perception focusing on the period from 1500-1800. Special attention is paid to the way nature and women are seen as related, views of women, and women's views on the natural world. A considerable emphasis is also placed on the way that agriculture, mining, technology, crafts and the economy changed people's interaction with nature and their views of it.
Merchant posits that three variations of the organic theory of society helped transition between organic views of nature and mechanism. These include, the medieval hierarchical society, the leveling of such hierarchies based on the experiences of village communities, and revolutions to overthrow the social hierarchy.
Besides providing a side of history not present in something like Traces on the Rhodian Shore, Merchant's book is also valuable because it describes the efforts made to preserve forests for hunting, ship building and other uses at a time when this resource was being quickly depleted and describes the relationship between the rate of tax and the destruction of the land. Namely, as peasants were taxed more heavily, fertilizers were introduced to get the most out of the land.
Merchant, C. (1989). Ecological revolutions: nature, gender, and science in New England. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press.
A historical look at ecological revolutions in New England and the movement away from sustainability. Agriculture, the attitudes of people toward the environment, and the relation of women to the land are emphasized most. The colonial revolution came first and shifted from Native American ecological views where humans, other animals, plants, and inanimate objects were all subjects to one where natural objects became a symbol of exchange. The horticulture of Native American women mimicked nature as much as possible while the Pilgrims and Puritans worked with geometrical fields and a patriarchal system of land ownership near their homes and rotated crops over a much smaller area. The multi-sensual experience of nature and oral memory were also replaced by a visual consciousness and analytic form of knowledge during this time. These trends were amplified during the capitalist ecological revolution, roughly from 1776-1860 when nature began to be viewed as a commodity -- the goal was now to farm for profit rather than subsistence. Farmers began using more fertilizers and viewed the soil and all of agriculture as a scientific experiment, asking what needs to be added to obtain the highest yields from all fields. The mechanistic view of nature grew and men increasingly took over farming, raising livestock and other tasks traditionally in the domain of women. The public sphere became more male dominated while the home became the focus of women. With increased opportunities to buy cloth, and increased quality and quantities of food, women began to spend more time in the home cleaning their extra clothes and making more elaborate meals. Additionally, their role began to be seen solely to produce and educate children. Though Merchant does not describe this in great detail, she suggests that we are in the midst of a third type of ecological revolution, one in which the whole planet is transformed at an amazing rate by humans. This text draws on many studies of historical data and is wonderfully detailed. Such detail points out that the unsustainable practices we now live with have been around for quite some time, and that such ingrained ideas and practices will be difficult to change.
Merchant, C. (2003). Reinventing Eden: The Fate of Nature in Western Culture. New York, Routledge.
Merchant examines narratives about nature, and finds that in the West, we try to recover the lost Eden by reinventing nature. Several different narratives describe this process. The mainstream recovery narrative is the most common. In it people strive to recover Eden by changing wilderness into gardens, "female" nature into civilized society, and indigenous folkways into modern culture. Merchant points out that this mastery of nature to reclaim Eden has nearly destroyed the nature that people try to recover. Consequently, she posits that a new narrative is needed to guide our relationship to nature.
The two major kinds of narratives are the progressive, described above in which Eden is reinvented, and the declensionist in which the decline of the quality of the environment from some initial paradise is discussed. Merchant claims both are present in Western history, but that the new sciences of chaos and complexity suggest that dominating or controlling nature is unlikely to succeed.
Merchant traces the evolution of the narratives, focusing on the ways colonialization, and the role of women shape the narratives. Merchant advocates a partnership narrative as a basis for a new environmental ethic. This narrative stresses that people are helpers, partners, and colleagues with each other and with nature, both being equally important to the other. She believes such a view will yield the greatest good for both human and nonhuman communities. To encourage such a view, we need to recognize the ways that humans are similar to the rest of nature, and also how we are different. Merchant does recognize that there are problems with the partnership narrative. In particular, the global capitalist system has the power to remover resources from the earth without thinking of reusing, restoring or recycling. The property rights movement and deep cultural differences among people also prevent the partnership narrative from being easy to attain. In the end, Merchant still champions the partnership narrative because she believes that narratives can help restructure our priorities and way of life around a common theme.
Nash, R. (1989). The rights of nature: a history of environmental ethics. Madison, Wis., University of Wisconsin Press.
Ponting, C. (1992). A green history of the world: the environment and the collapse of great civilizations. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Rothman, H. (2000). Saving the planet: the American response to the environment in the twentieth century. Chicago, Ivan R. Dee.
[http://www.h-net.org/review/hrev-a0c3s6-aa.]
Schwab, J. (1994). Deeper shades of green: the rise of blue-collar and minority environmentalism in America. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books.
[http://www.loc.gov/catdir/description/random0411/93029848.html.]
Worster, D. (1985). Nature's economy: a history of ecological ideas. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York, Cambridge University Press.
Worster, D. (1993). The wealth of nature: environmental history and the ecological imagination. New York, Oxford University Press.
Worster, D. (1994). An unsettled country: changing landscapes of the American West. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press.
Industry
Clark, J. J., T. C. Chiang, et al. (1989). Sustainable corporate growth: a model and management planning tool. New York, Quorum Books.
Gray, R. H. (1994). "Corporate Reporting for Sustainable Development: Accounting for Sustainability in 2000 AD." Environmental Values 3(1): 17-45.
This paper describes the various ways that organizations can report on their sustainability practices. The current discussion of sustainability reporting is similar to the trend to report on social factors that occurred in 1970s. From this historical trend, the author gathers that unless reporting is made mandatory, or it is shown to be economically advantageous, companies are unlikely to do it. Also, without regulation standards, it is difficult to know if the reports are valid or meaningful. Consequently, Gray suggests that reporting should be standardized and required if it is to have any effect.
Gray also notes that there is a different between environmental reporting and reporting for sustainability. Environmental reporting can include reporting wastes, energy use, and the toxicity of chemicals used. Reporting for sustainability determines how sustainable a company’s actions are. Neither type of reporting has been done very well, partially because there is no standard method, partially because relevant data does not always exist, and partially because there can be little incentive for businesses to do such reporting.
In order to successfully report for sustainability, sustainability must be defined. Gray supports the middle view espoused by Pearce, that we should aim for non-negative changes in the stock of natural resources and the waste assimilation capacity of the environment. Using this definition, new measures must be developed that are not just useful for the financial community but also to the larger society including communities and future generations. Three methods for reporting, the Inventory Approach, Sustainable Cost Approach, and the Resource Flow-through/Input-Output Approach are discussed.
Gray encourages further development of one of these types of reports, and requiring businesses to do such reporting as long as the new research did not make people complacent, thinking that they have done something when in fact no movement toward sustainability has been made.
Hayes, T. (1995). The cooperative as a development tool: commercial avenues toward sustainable development: 55 leaves.
Mitsch, W. J. and S. E. Jorgensen, Eds. (1989). Ecological engineering: an introduction to ecotechnology. Environmental science and technology. New York, Wiley.
Rath, A. and B. Herbert-Copley (1993). Green technologies for development: transfer, trade, and cooperation. Ottawa, Ont., Canada, International Development Research Centre.
Steele, J. (1997). Sustainable architecture: principles, paradigms, and case studies / James Steele. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Policy
Adams, D. A. (1993). Renewable resource policy: the legal-institutional foundations. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Agyeman, J. and B. Evans (1995). "Sustainability and democracy: Community Participation in Local Agenda 21." Local Government Policy Making 22(2): 35-40.
Ashby, T. H. (1990). The need for a reform of World Bank policy toward sustainable development: viii, 147 p.
Atkinson, A. (1991). Principles of political ecology. London, Belhaven Press.
Baetz, B. (1994). "Creation of landowner compacts for sustainable community development." Journal of Urban Planning and Development 12(4): 174-182.
Bandyopadhyay, J. and V. Shiva (1998). "Political economy of ecological movements." Economic and Political Weekly(11 June): 1123-1232.
Baram, M. S. (1994). "Multinational corporations, private codes, and technology transfer for sustainable development." Environmental Law 24: 33-65.
Barry, J. and M. Wissenburg (2001). Sustaining liberal democracy: ecological challenges and opportunities. New York, Palgrave.
Bergh, J. C. J. M. v. d., J. v. d. Straaten, et al. (1994). Toward sustainable development: concepts, methods, and policy. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Brenton, T. and Energy and Environmental Programme (Royal Institute of International Affairs) (1994). The greening of Machiavelli: the evolution of international environmental politics. London, Royal Institute of International Affairs Energy and Environmental Programme; Washington, D.C., Earthscan Publications; Distributed in North America by Brookings Institution.
Bryant, R. (1991). "Putting politics first -- the political ecology of sustainable development." Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 1(6): 164-166.
Bryant, R. (1992). "Political ecology: an emerging research agenda in third-world studies." Political Geography 11(1): 12-36.
Campbell-Mohn, C., Ed. (1993). Sustainable environmental law: integrating natural resource and pollution abatement law from resources to recovery. St. Paul, MN, West.
Campbell-Mohn, C. and Environmental Law Institute. (1993). Environmental law: from resources to recovery. St. Paul, Minn., West Pub. Co.
Chatterjee, P. and M. Finger (1994). The earth brokers: power, politics, and world development. London; New York, Routledge.
Conca, K., M. Alberty, et al., Eds. (1995). Green planet blues: environmental politics from Stockholm to Rio. Boulder, CO, Westview Press.
Connoly, P. (1993). "'The go-between': CENVI, a habitat NGO in Mexico City." Environment & Urbanization 5(1): 68-90.
Cooke, G. A., A. Atkinson, et al. (1994). The evolving protection of state laws and the environment: NAFTA from a Texas perspective. Austin, Tex., U.S.-Mexican Policy Studies Program Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs University of Texas at Austin.
Cronon, W. (1995). Uncommon ground: toward reinventing nature. New York, W.W. Norton & Co.
Davis, F. W. (1995). "Information systems for conservation research, policy, and planning." BioScience Supplement 36-42.
Derzko, N. M. (1996). "Using intellectual property law and regulatory processes to foster the innovation and diffusion of environmental technologies." Harvard Environmental Law Review 20(1): 3-59.
Dobson, A. (1995). Green political thought. London; New York, Routledge.
Doherty, B. and M. d. Geus (1996). Democracy and green political thought: sustainability, rights, and citizenship. London; New York, Routledge.
Dovers, S. R. (1995). "A framework for scaling and framing policy problems in sustainability." Ecological Economics 12(2): 93-106.
Dunhoff, J. L. (1995). "From green to global: toward the transformation of international environmental law." Harvard Environmental Law Review 19(2): 241-302.
Eckersley, R. (1992). Environmentalism and political theory: toward an ecocentric approach. Albany, State University of New York Press.
Elworthy, S. and Interdisciplinary Research Network on Environment and Society. (1995). Perspectives on the environment 2: interdisciplinary research on politics, planning, society, and the environment. Aldershot; Brookfield, Vt., USA, Avebury.
Environment Liaison Centre. (1987). Joining hands: a first response to "Our common future". Nairobi, Kenya, The Centre.
Fisher, K. S., J., Ed. (1993). Environmental strategies for industry: international perspectives on research needs and policy implications. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Foundation, I. (1991). "NGOs face the challenge of a new decade." Grassroots Development 15(2): special issue.
Friedmann, J. (1987). Planning in the public domain: from knowledge to action. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.
Gaventa, J. (1995). "Citizen knowledge, citizen competence and democracy building." The Good Society: A PEGS Journal 5(3): 28-35.
Ghai, D. P. and J. M. Vivian (1992). Grassroots environmental action: people's participation in sustainable development. London; New York, Routledge.
Ginther, K., E. Denters, et al. (1995). Sustainable development and good governance. Boston, Kluwer Academic.
Grubb, M. (1993). The "Earth Summit" agreements: a guide and assessment: an analysis of the Rio '92 UN Conference on Environment and Development. London, Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Gunderson, L. H., C. S. Holling, et al. (1995). Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. New York, Columbia University Press.
Henion, K. E., T. C. Kinnear, et al. (1979). The Conserver society. Chicago, American Marketing Association.
Käkönen, J. (1992). Perspectives on environmental conflict and international relations. London; New York, Pinter.
Kèakèonen, J. and Rauhan- ja konfliktintutkimuslaitos (Tampere Finland) (1994). Green security or militarized environment. Aldershot; Brookfield, USA, Dartmouth.
Kennedy, K. C. (1994). "Reforming united States trade policy to protect the global environment: a multilateral approach." Harvard Environmental Law Review 18(1): 185-234.
Korten, D. C. (1990). Getting to the 21st century: voluntary action and the global agenda. West Hartford, Conn., Kumarian Press.
Kozlowski, J. M. and G. Hill (1993). Towards planning for sustainable development: a guide for the Ultimate Environmental Threshold (UET) Method. Aldershot, Hants, England; Brookfield, Vt., Avebury.
Lang, W., Ed. (1994). Sustainable development and international law. Boston, Kluwer [distributer].
Leff, E. (1993). "Marxism and the environmental question: from the critical theroy of production to an environmental rationality for sustainable development." Capitalism, Nature, Socialism: Journal of Socialist Ecology 4(1): 44-66.
Light, P. C. (1998). Sustaining innovation: creating nonprofit and government organizations that innovate naturally / Paul C. Light. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Lundqvist, L. J. (2001). "A Green Fist in a Velvet Glove: The Ecological State and Sustainable Development." Environmental Values 10(4): 455-472.
In this article, Lundqvist attempts to determine how far ecological states can pursue sustainable development without intruding on principles of democracy. Part of the motivation for this article is the idea that the classic "command and control" strategies used to regulate environmental practices have decreasing marginal returns, and so some question whether democratic governmental controls can achieve movement toward sustainable development. Despite critiques that the state is not the best place for environmental regulation (many green politicians focus on local or global government, and the inclusion of all stakeholders) Lundqvist argues that the state is the best political unit for achieving legitimate binding decisions in a multifaceted goal of sustainable development because it has the best resources, the ability to enforce rules and support scientific research.
Lundqvist recognizes that government leaders want policies that are "authoritative and effective in promoting desired behaviors while those governed would like them to be flexible, self-adjusting and reflexive, allowing individual citizens to have influence and choice." thus, an ecological state must be structured to allow central coordination and interactive learning to achieve sustainable resource management from a practical physical level (discussed elsewhere) and for political reasons. Following trends in environmental resource management and economics, Lundqvist suggests that regulation should be directed toward certain ends (for example toward reducing the scale and total amounts of resource use or pollutants emitted) while leaving the means to achieve these ends fairly unregulated. This allows markets and ingenuity to thrive, and generally is attractive to more corporations, while achieving the desired effects.
Lundqvist also proposes the institution of long term planning procedures that evaluate the state of the environment and needs of people in order to broaden the scope of environmental planning. He also suggests that new policies and procedures to limit damage to the environment are received much differently by the public depending on how they are introduced, and that more attention must be paid to this step of the policy development process.
Martinez-Alier, J. (1995). "Political ecology, distributional conflicts, and economic incommensurability." New Left Review 211: 70-88.
Martinez-Alier, J. and L. A. Thurpp (1992). "A political ecology of the South." Latin American Perspectives 72(19): 1.
McCormick, J. (1989). Reclaiming paradise: the global environmental movement. Bloomington, Indiana University Press.
McHarg, I. L. and American Museum of Natural History. (1969). Design with nature. Garden City, N.Y., Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press.
McKim, T. K. (1993). Toward sustainable development sustainable participation and the role of law. Calgary, University of Calgary.
Mumme, S. P., R. C. Bath, et al. (1988). "Political development and environmental policy in Mexico." Latin American Research Review 23(1): 7-34.
Muteshi, J. K. (1995). "Collaborative alliances: the environment, women and the Africa-2000 network." Environment & Urbanization 7(1): 205-218.
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge [England]; New York, Cambridge University Press.
Panjabi, R. K. L. (1997). The Earth Summit at Rio: politics, economics, and the environment. Boston, Northeastern University Press.
Peck, C. (1998). Sustainable peace: the role of the UN and regional organizations in preventing conflict. Lanham., Rowan & Littlefield.
Perotti, R., R. Strauch, et al. (1998). Sustainability of public finances. London, CEPR.
Rees, W. E. (1995). "Achieving Sustainability: Reform or Transformation?" Journal of Planning Literature 9(4): 343-61.
Reilly, C. (1991). When do environmental problems become issues? Whose issues? And who manages them best? United Nations Research Institute on Sustainable Development (UNRISD) Workshop on Sustainable Development through People's Participation in Resource Management, Geneva, Inter-American Foundation, Washington, DC.
Rieser, A. (1991). "Ecological preservation as a public property right: an emerging doctrine in search of a theory." Harvard Environmental Law Review 15(2): 393-433.
Robert, K.-H. (1992). "Educating a nation: the natural step." Context 28: 1-15.
Rodrigues, M. G. M. (1996). Environmental protection issue networks and the prospects for sustainable development: xiii, 346 leaves.
Rosenberg, R. L. and S. J. Stein (1995). Advancing the Miami process: civil society and the Summit of the Americas. Miami, Fl.; Boulder, CO, North-South Center Press; Distributed by L. Rienner Publishers.
"A thorough and useful documentary collection of official summit documents, publications of intergovernmental organizations, proposals from nongovernmental organizations and individuals, and some correspondence relating to the summit"--Handbook of Latin American Studies, v. 57.
Selman, P. H. (1996). Local sustainability: managing and planning ecologically sound places. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Working with the Brundtland report's concept of sustainable development, and heavily with local Agenda 21 initiatives, this book analyzes various key aspects of local sustainable development including government, land use, businesses and the role of citizens. It focuses on why the local level is so important for sustainability, what has been done at the local level, the "best practices" that are emerging, and begins to suggest what may work well in the future. Only a small part of the text, but quite interesting, is the idea that power relationships are the key to sustainable development. Selman asserts that sustainability is not a science but an issue of the relative power between developed and developing countries, women and men, human and non-human. He also suggests that NIMBY (Not in My Backyard) responses are often based in an unequal power structure between locals and central authorities. I think that the issue is not just one of power, but of the way that power issues are based upon how people assign value and what value an item has to the larger ecosystem, including humans.
Sher, M. S. (1993). "Can lawyers save the rain forest: enforcing the second generation of debt-for-nature swaps." Harvard Environmental Law Review 17(1): 151-224.
Socolow, R. H., Ed. (1994). Industrial ecology and global change. Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1993). Agenda 21: programme of action for sustainable development; Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; Statement of forest principles. [New York, N.Y.], United Nations Department of Public Information.
United Nations Development Programme. (1992). Human development report 1992. New York, [Oxford University Press] for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
VanderZwaag, D. L. (1995). Canada and marine environmental protection: charting a legal course towards sustainable development. London; Boston, Kluwer Law International.
Vig, N. J. and M. E. Kraft (2003). Environmental policy: new directions for the twenty-first century. Washington, D.C., CQ Press.
Warrick, C. A. (1994). Regional agreements on the transboundary movement of hazardous waste: efforts toward sustainable development: vi, [102] leaves.
Weaver, J. H., M. T. Rock, et al. (1997). Achieving broad-based sustainable development: governance, environment, and growth with equity. West Hartford, Conn., Kumarian Press.
Wickersham, J. H. (1994). "The quiet revolution continues: the emerging new model for state growth management statutes." Harvard Environmental Law Review 18(2): 489-548.
Williams, C. C. and G. Haughton (1994). Perspectives towards sustainable environmental development. Aldershot; Brookfield, USA, Avebury.
World Commission on Environment and Development. Experts Group on Environmental Law., R. D. Munro, et al. (1987). Environmental protection and sustainable development: legal principles and recommendations. London; Boston, Graham & Trotman/M. Nijhoff.
Yakowitz, M. (1997). "Sustainable development: OECD policy approaches for the 21st century."
This book focuses on OECD countries, and assumes markets is the biggest and best way to fix problems, both because the world works this way and because it has worked in the past, and is theoretically possible. However, there is some admission that other strategies may be used in addition to economic ones, though the economic will achieve the most results. It focuses on the socio-economic dimensions of Agenda 21 and in part two, looks at sectorial issues such as energy, transportation, agriculture, chemicals etc. to highlight how these areas fit into the idea of sustainability.
Zoec, A. (1993). "Sustainable communities from the grassroots: citizens take urban planning into their own hands." Co-op America Quarterly Spring: 15-18.
Population
Brown, L. R. and H. Kane (1994). Full house: reassessing the Earth's population carrying capacity. New York, W.W. Norton & Co.
Keyfitz, N. (1993). "Population and sustainable development: distinguishing fact and preference concerning the future human population and environment." Population and Environment 14(5): 441-461.
King, J. and M. Slesser (1995). "Prospects for sustainable development: the significance of population growth." Population and Environment 16(6): 487-505.
Turner, B. L. (1990). The Earth as transformed by human action: global and regional changes in the biosphere over the past 300 years. Cambridge; New York, Cambridge University Press with Clark University.
Wackernagel, M. and W. E. Rees (1996). Our ecological footprint: reducing human impact on the earth. Gabriola Island, BC; Philadelphia, PA, New Society Publishers.
Zimmer, K. S. (1994). "Human geography and the new ecology: the prospect and promise of integration." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84(1): 108-125.
Social Issues
Aiken, W. (1992). "Human rights in an ecological era." Environmental Values 1(3): 191-203.
Braidotti, R. and International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women. (1994). Women, the environment and sustainable development: towards a theoretical synthesis. London; Atlantic Highlands, N.J., Zed Books in association with INSTRAW.
Cornman, J. C. and University of Michigan. Population Studies Center. (1996). Toward sustainable development: implications for population aging and the wellbeing of elderly women in developing countries. Ann Arbor, MI, Population Studies Center University of Michigan.
Emberson-Bain, A. (1994). Sustainable development or malignant growth? perspectives of Pacific Island women. Suva, Fiji, Marama Publications.
Jackson, C. (1995). "Radical environmental myths: a gender perspective." New Left Review 210: 124-140.
Johnston, B. R. and Society for Applied Anthropology. Committee on Human Rights and the Environment. (1994). Who pays the price? the sociocultural context of environmental crisis. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Lubchenco, J. (1998). "Entering the century of the environment: A new social contract for science." Science 297: 491-97.
Merchant, C. (1995). Earthcare: women and the environment. New York, Routledge.
Milbrath, L. W. (1989). Envisioning a sustainable society: learning our way out. Albany, State University of New York Press.
Redclift, M. R. and T. Benton (1994). Social theory and the global environment. London; New York, Routledge.
Roszak, T., M. E. Gomes, et al. (1995). Ecopsychology: restoring the earth, healing the mind. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books.
Seager, J. (1993). Earth follies: coming to feminist terms with the global environmental crisis. New York, Routledge.
Soeters, R. and S. Nzala (1994). "Primary health care trading companies for sustainable development." World Health Forum 15(1): 51-55.
Tourism
Cater, E. (1995). "Environmental contradictions in sustainable tourism." Geographical Jounal 161(1): 21-28.
Hall, C. M. and A. A. Lew, Eds. (1998). Sustainable tourism: a geographical perspective. Harlow, Essex, England, Longman.
Ioannides, D., Y. Apostolopoulos, et al. (2001). Mediterranean islands and sustainable tourism development: practices, management and policies. New York, Continuum.
Jafari, J., G. Wall (1994). "Sustainable tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 21(3): 667-669.
Priestley, G. K., J. A. Edwards, et al., Eds. (1996). Sustainable tourism? European experiences. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.
Turner, R. K., D. Pearce, et al. (2001). Mediterranean islands and sustainable tourism development: practices, management and policies. New York, Continuum.
Urban Planning
Aoyagi, K., P. Nas, et al. (1998). Toward sustainable cities: readings in the anthropology of urban environments. Leiden, Leiden Development Studies, Institute of Cultural and Social Studies, University of Leiden.
Atkinson, A. (1992). "The urban bioregion as 'sustainable development' paradigm." Third World Planning Review 14(4): 327-354.
Atkinson, A. (1994). "The contribution of cities to sustainability." Third World Planning Review 16(2): 97-101.
Barnett, J. (1995). The fractured metropolis: improving the new city, restoring the old city, reshaping the region. New York, HarperCollins.
Bartone, C. and Urban Management Program. (1994). Toward environmental strategies for cities: policy considerations for urban environmental management in Developing countries. Washington, D.C., Published for the Urban Management Programme by the World Bank.
Beavis, M. A., J. Patterson, et al. (1992). A select, annotated bibliography on sustainable cities. Winnipeg, Man., Institute of Urban Studies, University of Winnipeg.
Bonham, J. B., G. Spilka, et al. (2002). Old cities/green cities: communities transform unmanaged land. Chicago, IL, American Planning Association.
Brotchie, J. F. (1995). Cities in competition: productive and sustainable cities for the 21st century. Melbourne, Longman Australia.
Brown, L. B. and J. L. Jacobson (1987). The future of urbanization: facing the ecological and economic constraints. Washington, D.C., World Watch Institute. World Watch Paper.
Burgess, R., M. Carmona, et al. (1997). The challenge of sustainable cities: neoliberalism and urban strategies in developing countries. London; Atlantic Highlands, N.J., Zed Books.
Burnstein, J. D. (1994). Land use considerations in urban environmental management. Urban Management Programme Paper. Washington D.C, World Bank. 12.
Canadian International Development Agency. (1998). An urbanizing world: statement on sustainable cities. [Ottawa], Canadian International Development Agency.
Carley, M., P. Jenkins, et al. (2001). Urban development and civil society: the role of communities in sustainable cities. Sterling, VA, Earthscan Publications.
Cheema, G. S., J. Smit, et al. (1996). Urban agriculture: food, jobs and sustainable cities. New York, NY, United Nations Development Programme.
Cooperative Housing Foundation. (1990). "Environmentally sound shelter in informal urban settlements." Ekistics 57(342): 122-126.
Corbett, J. and M. N. Corbett (2000). Designing sustainable communities: learning from Village Homes. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Cronon, W. (1991). Nature's metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. New York, W. W. Norton.
Douglas, M. (1989). "The environmental sustainability of development: coordination, incentive and political will in land use planning for the Jakarta metropolis." Third World Planning Review 11(2): 211-237.
Douglas, M. (1992). "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia; access, empowerment and community based alternatives." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 9-32.
Douglas, M. and M. Zoghlin (1994). "Sustaining cities at the grassroots: livelihood, environment and social networks in Suan Phlu, Bangkok." Third World Planning Review 16(2): 171-200.
Drakakis-Smith, D. (1995). "Third world cities: sustainable urban development." Urban Studies 32(4-5): 659-677.
Dubois-Taine, G. and C. Henriot (2001). Cities of the Pacific Rim: diversity & sustainability. Paris, PUCA.
European Commission. Expert Group on the Urban Environment. and European Commission. Directorate-General for Environment Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection. (1996). European sustainable cities: report. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; Lanham, MD, Unipub [distributor].
Foo, A. F. and B. K. P. Yuen (1999). Sustainable cities in the 21st century. [Singapore], Faculty of Architecture, Building & Real Estate, National University of Singapore.
Fowler, E. P. and D. Siegel (2002). Urban policy issues: Canadian perspectives. Toronto, Oxford University Press.
Girardet, H. and Schumacher Society (Great Britain) (1999). Creating sustainable cities. Totnes, Devon, Published by Green Books for The Schumacher Society.
Guihéry, L. (2002). The future of railway transport in Europe: toward sustainable development.
Hardoy, J. E., D. Mitlin, et al. (1992). Environmental problems in Third World cities. London, Earthscan.
Hardoy, J. E., D. Mitlin, et al. (2001). Environmental problems in an urbanizing world: finding solutions in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Sterling, VA, Earthscan Publications.
Haughton, G. and C. Hunter (1994). Sustainable cities. London, J. Kingsley Publishers; Bristol, Pa., Regional Studies Association.
International Institute for Environment and Development. Human Settlements Programme. and International Institute for Environment and Development--Latin America. (1989). Environment and urbanization. London, Human Settlements Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development.
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Katz, P., V. J. Scully, et al. (1994). The new urbanism: toward an architecture of community. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Leitmann, J., C. Bartone, et al. (1992). "Environmental management and urban development: issues and options for third world cities." Environment and Urbanization 4(2): 131-140.
Leman, E. and J. E. Cox (1991). "Sustainable urban development: strategic considerations for urbanizing nations." Ekistics 58(348): 216-224.
MacNeill, J., J. E. Cox, et al. (1991). "Sustainable development: the urban challenge." Ekistics 58(348): 195-198.
Marris, P. (1982). Community planning and conceptions of change. London; Boston, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Mazzucchelli, S. A. (1995). "Participatory methodologies for rapid urban environmental diagnoses." Environment & Urbanization 7(2): 219-226.
McGranahan, G. (2001). The citizens at risk: from urban sanitation to sustainable cities. London; Sterling, VA, Earthscan.
Medoff, P. and H. Sklar (1994). Streets of hope: the fall and rise of an urban neighborhood. Boston, MA, South End Press.
Miltin, D. T., J (1995). "Participatory approaches in urban areas: strengthening civil society or reinforcing the status-quo." Environment and Urbanization 7(1): 231-250.
Mitlin, D. and J. Bicknel (1992). "Sustainable cities." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 3-general.
Morse, R. M. and J. E. Hardoy (1992). Rethinking the Latin American city. Washington, D.C., Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Baltimore, MD., Johns Hopkins University Press.
Nijkamp, P., Volkswagenstiftung., et al. (1990). Sustainability of urban systems: a cross-national evolutionary analysis of urban innovation. Aldershot; Brookfield, USA, Avebury.
Pacheco, M. (1992). "Recycling in Bogotà: developing a culture for urban sustainability." Environment & Urbanization 4(2): 74-79.
Perrings, C. and International Labour Office. (1996). Sustainable development and poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of Botswana. New York, St. Martin's Press.
Platt, R. H., R. A. Rowntree, et al. (1994). The Ecological city: preserving and restoring urban biodiversity. Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press.
Portney, K. E. (2003). Taking sustainable cities seriously: economic development, the environment, and quality of life in American cities. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press.
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Pugh, C. D. J. (1996). Sustainability, the environment and urbanization. London, Earthscan.
Pugh, C. D. J. (2000). Sustainable cities in developing countries: theory and practice at the millennium. London; Sterling, VA, Earthscan.
Rakodi, C. (1992). "Planning for sustainable urban development: cities and natural resource systems in developing countries." Third World Planning Review 14(4): 409-413.
Robins, N. and R. Kumar (1999). "Producing, providing, trading: Manufacturing industry and sustainable cities." Environment and Urbanization 11: 12.
Sassen, S. (2000). Cities in a world economy. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Pine Forge Press.
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Water
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