by Professor Jill Raitt, University of Missouri-Columbia

There are many different types of dissension. The word "heresy" is from the Greek hairein (went on to take the meaning of heresy) and is the teaching of heterodox (not orthodox) doctrine. Dissention can take on many forms and is not always considered heretical. Heretics are those who refuse to change their views even after the church has stated that they are contrary to doctrine (a stubborn persistance). In the Middle Ages, the church did not persecute at the drop of a hat. They persuaded, preached and convinced people in a non-violent manner many more times before turning to persecution. Doctrinal debate was common and many of the same issues came forward in many different groups. Some of the most common issues are the Eucharist, the manner of Christ's existance in the Eucharist, Christ's poverty, church poverty, chuch order, apostolic succession, iconoclasm, authority of the papacy and a resurgence of Manichean dualism. The Theodosian Code of 438 allowed for the lawful persecution of heretics and provided the beginnings of a church stance on "outsiders." As a note, not all of the groups listed below are heretical.


Arians:This was one of the earliest known heretical groups besides the ancients ones like paganism. They were so named after Arius (250-336) who defended subordinationism at the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325. Most Arians were Germanic and taught that the Father created the Son and the Spririt. This view was not held by the church, who after the First Council decreed that the Son and Spirit were equal to and one in substance with the Father and that all three are from all eternity.
Nestorians:Held the belief that Christ was two persons in two natures. (This is oversimplified and not what Nestorius taught; but to explain Nestorius's position well would take more space than is available here. Nestorius wanted to be sure that the divine nature and the human nature of Christ were not confused in any way. Adoptionism: Christ was born as a man and at some time in his life was adopted by God as the Son of God. Most adoptionists placed the time of Christ's adoption at his baptism by John when God declared, "This is my beloved son." Monophysites:Christ is one person in one nature. Docetism:Christ was not really human because he did not possess a corporeal being; he only appeared (Gk. dokeo) to have a body.
Manicheism:Held the dualist view that matter is evil and the spirit is divine. This view is connected with Docetism and both reoccur in the Middle Ages as Albigensianism.
Apocalypticism:A widely held view that the world would soon come to a cataclysmic end.
Iconoclasm:This a view which is held mainly in the eastern regions of Europe (Byzantium). It asserted that the visual representation of God or Saints was evil, although is was permissable to represent Christ. They were condemned in 787 by the Second Council of Nicaea. This idea recurred in the sixteenth century among the anabaptists.
Adlebert:In the eighth century, his followers believed that he could perform miracles.
Theuda:In the ninth century, she asserted that she was a prophetess.
Bogomilism:This was a popular heretical group which began in Bulgaria in 940. The leader was a priest named Bogomil who preached dualism (see Manicheism above). This group would reimerge 200 years later as Cathars or Albigensians.
Simoniac:Someone who buys or sells holy things: sacraments, church offices, blessings.
Paulicians:dualists
Montanism:An ancient heresy of ascetism.
Donatism:This group thought it was evil for an immoral priest to administer the sacraments.
Pelagianism:Human nature is itself God's gift, or grace, and is capable of contributing to salvation.
Nicolaitists: This group encouraged priests to marry.
Antisacerdotal:The eleventh century reformists who preached against baptism and the Eucharist. (This is also a branch of Eucharistic heresy)
Pataria:Led by Erlembald and Landulf of Milan in 1057, they were not heretics but held extreme reformist views in regard to immorality in the clergy.
Humiliati:These were twelth century reformists who were not condemned for heresy but held strict ascetic views and avoided oaths.
Waldensians: Waldensians were founded by Peter Waldo of Lyon in 1153. He sent his two children to live in monestaries and went off to preach. He began by translating the Latin bible into a common language and encouraged others to do the same. This allowed the common people to read the Gospels as well as make the sermons easier to understand. He also preached against the wealth of the church. Pope Alexander III allowed the Waldensians to live in poverty, however he refused to grant them a license to preach. Waldo was excommunicated in 1182 and died in 1205. His followers continued although their philosophies varied greatly and many segments broke from the original group. They always maintained that their doctrine was within the bounds of orthodoxy. Although their exact doctrine was not exactly heretical, their timing was not very good. At the same time, the church was 'battling' a highly influencial and heretical group which was spreading quickly. These were the Cathars.
Cathars (Albigensians): Catharism was created out of Bogomilism. The Cathars were strict dualists who believe the soul is divine and the body is evil. They rejected all physicalism such as sacraments, procreation and wealth. They also believed in reincarnation and absolution of sins through rituals but without ordained priests. As opposed to many heretical groups, Cathars did not believe that they were part of the church. They became very popular in southern France and northern Italy. Most of the Cathars were eliminated during the Albigensian Crusade (so named for Albi, France where many of them lived) which ended in 1229 and resulted in the addition of south-western France (which had belonged to Duke Charles of Toulouse) to the Kingdom of France.
Speronisti:This group was started by Ugo Speroni in 1170 in Lombardy. They belived that there was no need for priests to consecrate the Eucharist or baptise individuals. This was a major blow to Christian doctrine and not something that the church would accept.
Beghards: Groups of men who wished to be poor for Christ and to live together for religious purposes although they did not take vows. They were often regarded as heretics.
Peter of Bruys (fl.1140) and Henry of Lausanne (1145):They were heretical, ascetic, charismatic, wandering preachers. They preached against the need for clergy and church order.
Arnold of Brescia:An abbot who became involved in a revolt against episcopal autocracy for which he was deposed as abbot. He taught in Paris and stayed for a time with Abelard. He preached against immorality in the church and advocated a propertyless church. He denied the validity of infant baptism and the validity of sacraments performed by simoniacal priests. He advocated the via apostolica (apostolic way) which also involved rebellion against the church as a temporal power. The sect founded by him were called Arnoldists. Arnold was executed as a heretic by Pope Adrian IV in 1155.
Judaism:Jewish people themselves were not considered heretics because they were God's chosen ones of the Old Covenant. They were often falsely accused, however, of various crimes such as desecrating the Eucharist, kidnapping, mocking the cross, serving the devil, usary, cannibalism and spreading disease.
Dolcinians (Apostolici): This group was started by Dolcino who proclaimed that he had received a message from the Holy Spirit declaring that the Apostolici were the chosen church, not the church as led by the Pope. The most extreme members were known to pillage and murder in the communities near wher they lived or camped. They used their self-righteous poverty as an excuse to destroy. Because others were not living in poverty they were sinful. This order took it upon themselves to punish those sinners. They twisted the original doctrine and became outlaws. Dolcino was executed in 1307.
Spiritual Franciscans: This group was a branch of the original Franciscan Friars. They were led by Peter-John Olivi (1248-98) and held strict views on poverty. They believed very strongly that the Friars should live in absolute poverty as St.Francis had lived.